ࡱ> pro'` @HbjbjLULU 4d.?.?@+6666666Jnnn8<,J@000   ???????$+ChE@6  @6600-@,6060??";d66>0 `Mn<"?Y@<@<yFyFD>>yF6> "-EY   @@PX   @JJJ$ nJJJnJJJ666666 Part III: Data types, data collection equipment and methods and best practice Part III 6 Geologic, Tectonic, and Geotechnical Information Equipment (suggested): Not all workers may have access to the same equipment types. This list is not exhaustive and equally does not require that all items be carried. It offers an element of redundancy and choice. It is recognised that several different types of equipment can achieve the same goal. Compass: Use an appropriate northern or southern hemisphere compass GPS: Not everyone will have one but they are reasonably common. To avoid confusion and misplacing of site locations ensure that an appropriate standard co-ordinate frame is set-up. This is normally World Geodetic System 84 (WGS 84), but it is worth checking. Electronic distance and elevation meters: These are becoming increasingly available as prices fall. Measuring tapes: Preferably long (100 m), medium (20-30 m) and short (5 m) tapes. In the absence of GPS or surveying equipment a simple rod-and-level topographic survey can be achieved using measuring tapes and long pole (e.g. Morton et al., 2008). D-handled shovel/spade about 1 m long (handle plus blade): Round pointed (cupped blade) shovel Square point (flat blade) spade All digging equipment should have a sharp edge to the cutting blade it is recommended that a file or stone be used to keep the blade sharp. The shaft can be painted/marked (e.g. red/white paint) at 10 cm intervals to provide photo scale. Folding shovel: Space saving, convenient. Shaft can be painted/marked (red/white paint) at 10 cm intervals to provide photo scale. Nejirigama (a Japanese weeding tool): Some researchers prefer to use these to clean the face of a section/trench. Sharp edge on one side. Trowel: Blade has two sharp edges and a point (maintain sharp edges/point using file/stone). Useful to have large (15 cm blade) and small (2 cm blade) for cleaning the face of a section/trench and for the fine detail work. Brushes: For cleaning up face of section/trench this helps highlight bedding. Preferable to have large (~8 cm wide) and small (~1 cm wide) for variable detail of work. Water spray bottle: Any type of laundry spray bottle filled with water. Useful with dry sands or unconsolidated sediments it helps to retain integrity of section. Augers/corers: There are many varieties with extension rods a core/auger has value for examining sediments in wetlands, estuaries, all types of water bodies. In the absence of trenchable areas or with only shallow trenches available these also has value for penetrating deeper below the surface to look for evidence of past events. Most common/convenient are; Gouge Augers these have variable barrel widths and lengths and work well for consolidated sediments but do not retain dry sands or unconsolidated material well; D-corer or Russian-type corer they have variable barrel widths and lengths, the rotating blade retains a length of core that can be extracted and examined later back in the laboratory. Always good to have one or both of these to augment trench work. Hand held piston cores are also a possibility. Whatever type of coring-related equipment is taken in the field it is essential to have the relevant sample collection material. This may be plastic core tubes for storing samples, or it may be by sample bags, but equally duct tape and plastic wrap (e.g. Saran wrap, glad wrap) are extremely useful for securing samples collected. Camera: take one with the largest megapixel size possible and with a good macro facility for close-up shots. Plenty of memory cards and battery back-up. Video camera: Useful for recording the context for trench/coring work and the nature and extent of the deposit at any one point. Like a camera the highest resolution available is preferred. Binoculars: High quality useful for examining potential sites from a distance. Time-saving device (e.g. is it worth crossing river to examine deposit?). Sample bags, sample tags, marker pens: It is almost impossible to have enough of these. Supplies for sediment peels: Taking a peel from a trench face is becoming an increasingly common practice BUT needs appropriate training because the hydrophilic grout used contains highly toxic chemicals. For this reason researchers from many countries are unable to access the material because it cannot be imported. The technique is moderately simple, but breathing apparatus and strong gloves are essential. The key supplies are the grout, a roll of plastic mesh, several litres of water, gloves, breathing apparatus, a plastic spatula or two, and some disposable plastic containers to mix the grout with water. Consult with colleagues to determine the best grout source in a region. Coastal uplift or subsidence (indicators used), surface faults, tilt Fieldwork should include interviews of local residents, fishermen and public officials to gather anecdotal accounts of changes in sea level, coastal landscapes (geomorphology), and damage to reefs. Where possible, interviews should be in video form in order to allow for post-visit analysis. Field teams should complement interview data with on-site observations and measurements including the identification, location and estimates of the extent of possible coastal uplift or subsidence. Where possible and subject to equipment availability, GPS vertical positioning of existing benchmarks would be useful. The field team should note and estimate vertical movements based upon the presence of: Submerged or salt-burnt vegetation or green leafy plants in the inter tidal zone Uplifted barnacles, mussels, seaweed, or any other subtidal/intertidal flora Changes in tidal limits new high tide marks Cracks, liquefaction, tilting or warping in the ground, evidence of fault creep and direction of the motion, landslides Measurements of estimated uplift based on these features have uncertainties of 0.5 m, but nevertheless they serve to define broad spatial variations in the magnitude of vertical deformation along a coastline. Aerial reconnaissance - extensive coastal surveys - can identify the presence of uplifted wave-cut platforms cut into bedrock. These platforms will be covered in dead intertidal marine organisms, and will be clearly visible from the air. Similarly, well documented/mapped coastal structures such as lighthouses may be uplifted and will provide more precise indications of uplift/subsidence. Tsunami deposits - onshore and offshore and erosion and geomorphological change Observe and detect the presence of boulders, sand, silt, gravel and/or mud sheets deposited by the tsunami in tidal wetlands, coastal lakes/lagoons, coastal plains, over and behind barrier beaches, and in dune systems. Take core samples either with a d-corer, piston corer, or other augering device. If it is possible then a sampling regime should include numerous cores from landward to seaward sites along the pathway of inundation this may be perpendicular to the shoreline, but equally may be sub-parallel to the coast. Prior to undertaking any sampling regime it is vital to determine the flow direction, assess the maximum extent of inundation, identify sediment sources and deposit thickness. Where possible both core and trench data should be collected in order to have a better understanding of vertical and horizontal continuity of the deposit. Teams should measure the thickness and horizontal extent of fine sediment deposits, and also the a, b, c axes and orientation of large clasts. Coarse sediment deposits such as boulders should have their distance from the shore and source area, and elevation above sea level measured. Equally, the transport mode for large clasts should be determined by identifying striations, chatter marks and the association between fine and coarse sediment deposits. All deposits should be surveyed and tied in to sea level or a suitable survey point. Samples should be collected at as high a resolution sampling regime that is possible given the time available. Sediment cores, peels from trenches, high resolution photographs for subsequent grain size analyses, monoliths sampled from trench walls, or closely spaced vertical sampling at sub-cm intervals are some of the techniques recommended. It is vital to determine the nature of the tsunami as it came inland eroding, creating a bypass zone, depositing, and then the relationship between the maximum inundation distance of the water compared with sediment and detritus. Detailed studies of the entire deposit are extremely valuable not solely the sediments but also the nature of the lower contact crushed vegetation, erosional etc. Elements of the deposit such as incorporated shells, wood, organic matter, anthropogenic material, all help to understand the nature of the erosion-entrainment-deposition process. The study of submarine deposits is in its infancy and there are considerable logistical difficulties associated with gathering data. Conditions may not permit safe sample collection and this decision is left to the team to decide. Collection by SCUBA and/or snorkel survey is the most appropriate since it involves low cost and relatively simple shore based work. At the very least, it is recommended that personnel have a high proficiency certificate in either SCUBA or snorkelling and also have relevant first aid facilities on-hand. The most likely scenario is that teams carrying out submarine work will be part of a later group of researchers to access the area once the initial emergency response has passed. Water clarity, tidal conditions, currents, etc.. all need to be considered. If possible a sonar/side scan survey should be carried out to determine the extent of submarine deposits prior to selective push core sampling. Maintaining the integrity of the sediment samples is vital and as such, the work should not be carried out without relevant underwater research expertise. If time permits, a fully gridded section of the deposit should be studied with a complete photographic survey of the area tied in to an appropriate benchmark on land. Where there has been deposition there will also have been associated erosion. It is vital to undertake a comprehensive study of both zones since these in essence comprise the full geological evidence for the tsunami. A student of eroded areas is both a study of the source area for much of the material deposited on land and a measure of the fluctuating energy regime within the tsunami itself since backwash erosion is often noted and will clearly contribute sediments to the submarine component of the deposit. This work should be carried out in conjunction with a study of the deposit and efforts should be made to associate zones of erosion with zones of deposition since these indicate that size of material moved and over what distance inland and what elevation. Where possible a detailed topographic survey should be carried out of key areas where both zones of deposition and erosion are clearly defined, preferably with an onshore and offshore component. This will also serve to provide a detailed geomorphology of the area that can be compared and contrasted with earlier topographic information if available. The importance of a holistic study of features associated with the deposit cannot be overstated. Erosion and deposition are intimately connected and equally they in turn form a unique suite of geomorphological features that remain in the landscape to complement the geological evidence. All forms of data gathering should be undertaking, but it is cvital to place the sedimentological and stratigraphic evidence in the context of the process environment. This requires detailed surveying by any available tools such as total stations, GPS, rod and level. These on-the-ground data can be compared with satellite or other remotely gathered data later to groundtruth a broader interpretation of the inundation area. Palaeo-tsunami deposits survey As part of the survey of the contemporary deposit it is reasonably simple to add on module for an initial study of possible palaeotsunami deposits. While the time available is unlikely to allow a comprehensive core and trench study, it is a simple process to gather suitable core data through either D-corer or vibracoring coupled with a study of deeper trench records where a mechanical digger is available. The most reasonable locations for augering and coring work would be coastal wetland areas which allow for easy penetration of the ground surface. Trenches are unlikely to penetrate as deep as an augering/coring regime BUT they provide key data on the lateral continuity of suspected palaeotsunami deposits. Tying the palaeotsunami core and trench sampling in with key sites of the contemporary work eases the burden of surveying in data points and also provides a convenient comparison with evidence from the most recent event. In the field there are two different types of work that can be carried out depending upon whether data have been collected through auger/coring or trenching. For the former, other than ensuring that the appropriate site location and contextual data have been collected it is relatively simple to sample and store the extracted core material and return to the laboratory for later analysis. For trench work, any potential palaeotsunami deposit can be treated in a similar manner to the contemporary event but with a particular focus on attempting to establish a chronology for the event(s) in question. Treating the potential palaeotsunami deposit in a similar fashion to the contemporary event however, means that a substantial amount of time needs to be spent at a single site to process all of the information. Since this work would normally represent an addition to the study of the contemporary deposit there may be little time to do more than take a few preliminary samples. If time allows, then a more complete study can be carried out. If not, this preliminary work provides crucial location data for a return visit once funding permits. As an interim measure it is recommended that a simple core be taken from the side of the exposed trench. The current practice is to cut 50 cm lengths of plastic core pipe lengthwise and push it up against the trench wall. By cutting around the sides of the pipe with a trowel a vertical section of the trench wall is retained in the plastic pipe. This process can be continued from the top downwards to the base of the trench. In this manner one can retain an intact core sequence with contacts preserved and with a good understanding of the lateral continuity of the deposit(s) in relation to each other. Quality control/ reliability of data Fieldwork is carried out in teams and as such it is recommended that there are regular morning and evening group/sub-group discussions to not only plan the work that needs to be done but also to discuss what has been collected and how. Data sharing and cross-correlation between the work of individuals and teams should help to ensure that quality control is maintained and that data are reliable. There is NEVER enough time to complete all of the work, and there will ALWAYS be something that is forgotten or poorly recorded, this cannot be avoided, but it can be reduced by repeated data checking. IF time permits we recommend that at least one site be resurveyed/resampled to provide a check on the data collected. One of the most significant issues in recent immediate post-tsunami research efforts has been the recognition that there tends to be a biasing towards recording only the maximum runup and inundation at any one site, or the thickest and most extensive deposits these are valuable data but only cover a part of the story. If time permits, teams should make efforts to undertake more comprehensive surveys at each site visited. We recommend that each geology team has a leader who has extensive experience in immediate post-tsunami surveys and an up-to-date understanding of the latest methods and techniques available for fieldwork. They should act to ensure consistency of data collection and provide quality control over the teams (sub-teams) work. References Morton, R.A., Goff, J. and Nichol, S. (2008) Hydrodynamic implications of textural trends in sand deposits of the 2004 tsunami in Sri Lanka. Sedimentary Geology, 207, 56-64.      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