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: STATEMENT OF GUIDANCE FOR OCEAN APPLICATIONS
(Point of contact: Ali Mafimbo, Kenya)
(Updated October 2011, by Ali Mafimbo, KMD)
This Statement of Guidance (SOG) was developed through a process of consultation to document the observational data requirements to support ocean applications. This version was based originally on the JCOMM User Requirement Document, which was prepared by the Chairpersons of the Expert Teams under the JCOMM Services Programme Area. It is expected that the Statement will be reviewed at appropriate intervals by the JCOMM Services Programme Area Coordination Group to ensure that it remains consistent with the current state of the relevant science and technology.
1. Introduction
Marine Meteorology and Oceanography have a global role and embraces a wide range of users from international shipping, fishing and other met-ocean activities on the high seas to the various activities which take place in coastal and offshore areas and on the coast itself. In preparation of analyses, synopses, forecasts and warnings, knowledge is required of the present state of the atmosphere and ocean. There are three major met-ocean application areas that critically depend on highly accurate observations of met-ocean parameters: (a) Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP); (b) Seasonal to Inter-annual Forecast (SIA); and, (c) Met-Ocean Forecasts and Services (MOFS), including marine services and ocean mesoscale forecasting.
The key met-ocean variables to be observed and forecasted in support of NWP and SIA are addressed in the Numerical Weather Prediction and the Seasonal to Inter-annual Forecast Statements of Guidance (SoG). Met-ocean Services which refer to special elements, such waves, storm surges, sea-ice, ocean currents, etc., critically depend on relevant observational data. This Statement of Guidance provides a brief discussion on how well the present and planned met-ocean observing system meet the user requirements for Met-Ocean Services, concentrating on those parameters not covered by previous sections of this document. In particular, variables, such precipitation, air temperature, humidity and cloud cover, required for marine services are addressed in the global and regional NWP SoG.
The requirements for met-ocean forecasts and services stipulated here are based on a consensus of the met-ocean modelling and forecasting communities. It builds on the requirements for global and regional wave modelling and forecasting, marine meteorological services, including sea-ice, and ocean mesoscale forecasting, and represents in addition those variables that are known to be important for initialising, testing and validating models and assimilation, as well as for providing services.
2. Data Requirements
The following terminology has been adhered to as much as possible: poor (minimum user requirements are not being met), marginal (minimum user requirements are being met), acceptable (greater than minimum but less than optimum requirements are being met), and good (near optimum requirements are being met).
2.1 Wind-Wave parameters (significant wave height, dominant wave direction, dominant wave period, Wave 1D energy frequency spectrumal, and Wave direction energy frequency spectrum wave energy density, and 2-D frequency-direction spectral wave energy density)
Global and regional wave models are used to produce short- and medium-range wave forecasts (typically up to 7 days) of the sea state, with a horizontal resolution of typically 30-100 km for global models, and down to 3-4 km for regional models (with a natural progression to higher resolution expected). Marine forecasters use wave model outputs as guidance to issue forecasts and warnings of important wave variables (such as, significant wave height and dominant wave directionperiod) for their area of responsibility and interest, in support of several marine operations. Specific users usually require additional parameters that are obtained from the directional spectrum of wave energy density.
The observational requirements for global and regional wave modelling are depended on the applications for which the data are required and based on the need to provide an accurate analysis of the sea state at regular intervals (typically every 6 hours). These includes: (a) assimilation into wave forecast models; (b) validation of wave forecast models; (c) calibration / validation of satellite wave sensors; (d) ocean wave climate and its variability on seasonal to decadal time scales; and, (e) role of waves in coupling. Additionally, wave observations are also required for nowcasting (0 to 2 hours) and issuing / cancelling warnings, and very-short-range forecasting (up to 12 hours) of extreme waves associated with extra-tropical and tropical storms, and freak waves (in this case, in combination with other variables such as ocean currents). Whilst nowcasting is largely based on observational data, very-short range forecasting is being generated based on high-resolution regional wave models.
The key model variables for which observations are needed are: (i) significant wave height; (ii) dominant wave perioddirection; (iii) wave period; (iv) Wave 1-D energy frequency spectrumal wave energy density; and (v) 2-DWave directional energy frequency spectrum-direction spectral wave energy density. Also important are collocated surface wind observations which are advantageous for validation activities. Further additional parameters are of value for use in delayed mode validation (e.g. full time series of sea surface elevation).
The geographical coverage of the in situ wave data is still very limited and most measurements are taken in the Northern Hemisphere (mainly in the North America and Western Europe coasts). The majority of these data are provided by in situ non-spectral and spectral buoys and ships with acceptable frequency and marginal accuracy. Limited number of in situ spectral buoys is available around the globe. Current in situ reports are not standardized resulting in impaired utility. Differences in measured waves from different platforms, sensors, processing and moorings are identified. In particular, a systematic 10% bias identified between US and Canadian buoys, the two largest moored buoy networks. Standardized measurements and metadata are essential to ensure consistency between different platforms.
In situ measurements are currently too sparse in the open ocean (poor coverage) to be of particular value, but could potentially provide higher accuracy observations to complement and correct for biases in the satellite observations. For dominant wave period and significant wave height requirement for horizontal spacing for real-time Validation and assimilation as well as maritime safety services requirement is for average ranges from 20km for regional to 60km for global models with mimimum accuracy of 1 second and 0.25m respectively . The equivalent requirement for wave 1D energy frequency spectrum and wave direction energy frequency spectrum ranges from 100km for regional to 300km for global models with minimum accuracy of 0.2m2Hz-1 and 0.2 m2. Hz-1. rad-1 respectively. This will there for require a denser network of about 100,000 to 4000 buoys with sampling frequency of 24 hours.
For climate variability modelling a spacing of 1000km spacing requiring a network of around 400 buoys with minimum for all the wave variables will be required with similar accuracies and sampling frequencies as in the validation/assimilation requirements. 10% / 25cm accuracy for wave height and 1 second for wave period. Higher density resolutions (horizontal resolution of 500kmfor )all applications would be advantageous for data assimilation. Particularly iIn regions where known non-linear interactions between waves and local dynamic features exist (e.g., Agulhas Current, Gulf Stream, and Kuroshio Current). higher density (horizontal resolution of 100km) would be also advantageous.
Satellite altimeters provide information on significant wave height with global coverage and good accuracy. However, horizontal / temporal coverage is marginal. Minimum 20km and 60km resolution is required for use in regional and global wave models respectively. Along track spacing is likely to be adequate to meet this requirement; cross-track spacing is not. Multiple altimeters are therefore required to provide adequate cross-track sampling. Fast delivery (within 6 hours at most) is required with accuracy of 10% / 25cm for wave height, and 1 second for wave period. Long-term, stable time series of repeat observations are required for climate applications.
Information on the 2-D frequency-direction spectral wave energy density is provided by SAR instruments with good accuracy but marginal horizontal / temporal resolution. Horizontal resolution of 100km is required for use in regional models, with fast delivery required (within 6 hours). Real aperture radar capability is expected to be available within 5 years.
Coastal wave models require different observing methods to those used for the open ocean due not only to their high-resolution, but also due to limitations of the satellite data close to land, hence for these models systems such as coastal HF radar are of particular importance. These radars provide information on significant wave height with limited coverage, good accuracy and acceptable horizontal/temporal resolution. High-resolution observations (up to 100m resolution) are required over coastal model areas.
Potential contribution from other technologies and platforms (e.g., navigation radar, other radars, and shipborne sensors such as WAVEX) should be developed where they can contribute to meeting the specified requirements.
2.2 Sea Level
Traditionally, permanent sea level stations around the world have been primarily devoted to tide and mean sea level applications, both non-requiring real or near-real time delivery. This has been the main objective of the Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS). Because of this focus, not only are wind-waves filtered out from the records by mechanical or mathematical procedures, but any oscillation between wind-waves and tides (e.g., seiches, tsunamis, storm surges, etc.) has not been considered a priority; in fact, these phenomena are not properly monitored (standard sampling time of more than 5 to 6 minutes). The main component of GLOSS is the 'Global Core Network' (GCN) of 289 sea level stations around the world for long term climate change and oceanographic sea level monitoring. Due to the increased demand for tsunamis, storm surges and coastal flooding forecasting and warning systems, for assimilation of in situ sea level data into ocean circulation models, and for calibration / validation of the satellite altimeter and models, this range of the spectrum should be covered from now on, and it would be necessary to consider this when choosing a new instrument and designing the in situ sea level stations. Additionally, there has been an emphasis on making as many GLOSS gauges as possible deliver data in real and / or near-real time, i.e., typically within an hour. An ongoing issue with these data is sea level measurements have not been well integrated into NHMSs.
The aim of any tide gauge recording should be to operate a gauge which is accurate to better than 1cm at all times; i.e., in all conditions of tide, waves, currents, weather, etc. This requires dedicated attention to gauge maintenance and data quality control. In brief, the major requirements for in situ sea level stations are:
The sea-level network maintained by GLOSS is not enough to meet the requirements of both storm surge/tsunami forecasting as well as climate modeling. For storm surge and Tsunami forecasting a spacing of 10 km is required while for climate modeling 50 km spacing will meet the threshold. This will therefore require a denser network than is available today.
A sampling of sea level, averaged over a period long enough to avoid aliasing from waves, at intervals of typically 6 or 15 minutes, or even 1 minute or less if the instrument is to be used also for tsunami, storm surges and coastal flooding forecasting and warning; but in all circumstances the minimum sampling interval should be one hour, which these days is an insufficient sampling for most applications marginalwith an accuracyaccuracy of 10cm.;
Gauge timing be compatible with level accuracy, which means a timing accuracy better than one minute (and in practice, to seconds or better, with electronic gauges) marginal accuracy;
Measurements must be made relative to a fixed and permanent local tide gauge bench mark (TGBM). This should be connected to a number of auxiliary marks to guard against its movement or destruction. Connections between the TGBM and the gauge zero should be made to an accuracy of a few millimetres at regular intervals (e.g., annually) acceptable accuracy;
GLOSS gauges to be used for studies of long term trends, ocean circulation and satellite altimeter calibration / validation need to be equipped with GPS receivers (and monitored possible by other geodetic techniques) located as close to the gauge as possible;
The readings of individual sea levels should be made with a target accuracy of 10 mm acceptable accuracy;
Gauge sites should, if possible, be equipped for recording tsunami and storm surge signals, implying that the site be equipped with a pressure sensor capable of 15-seconds or 1-minute sampling frequency, and possibly for recording wave conditions, implying 1-second sampling frequency poor accuracy; and,
Gauge sites should be also equipped for automatic data transmission to data centres by means of satellite, Internet, etc., in addition to recording data locally on site.
Coastal sea level tide gauges are invaluable for refining tsunami warnings, but due to nearshore bathymetry, sheltering, and other localized conditions, they do not necessarily always provide a good estimate of the characteristics of a tsunami. Additionally, the first tide gauges to receive the brunt of a tsunami wave do so without advance verification that a tsunami is under way. In order to improve the capability for the early detection and real-time reporting of tsunamis in the open ocean, some countries have begun deployment of tsunameter buoys in the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans and other tsunami-prone basins. Due to cost constrains, the number of DART buoys deployed and maintained is still limited marginal geographic coverage and good accuracy.
The geographic coverage of the in situ sea level data is therefore not acceptable for studies of both long-term trends, butand marginal for other applicationsforecasting storm surge/tsunami. Tsunami and storm surge-prone basins (e.g., Bay of Bengal, Gulf of Mexico and Pacific Islands) require higher density of sea level observations. Sea level measurements should be accompanied by observations of atmospheric pressure, and if possible winds and other environmental parameters, which are of direct relevance to the sea level data analysis.
Satellite altimeters provide information on sea surface height with global coverage and good accuracy, i.e., within 1cm at a basin scale. However, horizontal / temporal coverage is marginal. The main limitation of the satellite altimeter in reproducing the non-long-term sea level changes is the spatial sampling because the repeat orbit cycle leads to an across-track spacing of about 300km at mid-latitudes. This sampling cannot resolve all spatial scales of mesoscale and coastal signals which have typical wavelengths of less than 100km at mid-latitude. The scales are even shorter at high latitudes (around 50km), but fortunately the ground track separation decreases with latitude. Thus, to cover the whole mesoscale and coastal domain it is necessary to increase the spatial sampling by merging (in an optimal way with cross-calibration) different altimetry data sets. The temporal changes in sea level are usually determined along the repeat tracks of altimetry satellites. In areas close to the coasts (less than 20km) the difficulty is even larger because of the proximity of land which the track spacing is too coarse to resolve the short scales of the sea level changes. Thus, adaptive tracker and / or specific re-tracking of altimeter waveforms and near-shore geophysical corrections (such as coastal tide models and marine boundary layer tropospheric corrections) are needed.
2.3 Sea Surface Height AnomaliesOcean Dynamic Topography
An important corollary application to sea level and the associated instrumentation is sea surface height anomaliesOcean Dynamic Topography (SSHAODT). SSHAODT provides an estimate of the integrated distribution of mass within the ocean (the analogue of sea level pressure for the atmosphere). Gradients in SSHAODT (or pressure) drive ocean circulation on spatial scales ranging from sub-mesoscale to Gyre scale and temporal scales of hours through decades.
High-resolution sea-surface height anomalies (SSHAODT) observations are required for: (i) ocean forecasting systems (assimilation in and validation of ocean models); and, (ii) marine servicesservice (storm surge/tsunami forecasting; and (iii) climate modelling .
The table below specifies the consolidated user requirements for ocean forecasting systems; climate modelling and marine services.
Spatial resolution (km)Delivery timeliness (hours)Accuracy (m)TargetThresholdCoastal Ocean forecasting< 5 203246720.1< 0.08Open Ocean forecasting5-10 506242472o.1< 0.08Climate modeling50241680.1Storm surge/tsunami forecasting101152min240.1
SSHAODT has been observed through a series of narrow swath instruments since 1992 (Topex-Poseidon, Jason, Jason2, ERS, ERSII, Envisat and Geosat and GFO). Throughout this period, there have been periods of 1 through 4 altimeters operating to conclusively show the benefits of the higher spatial and temporal coverage. It is now commonly accepted that a minimum of two interleaved operational satellites is required to support ocean forecasting applications. However, quantifiable benefits are obtained with additional satellites. These benefits predominantly are constrained to the regions of high mesoscale variability associated with all the major currents, Gulf Stream, Kuroshio Current, Agulhas Current, Brazil Current, Antarctic Circumpolar Current and East Australian Current and many other lesser but locally important current systems. Frequently these regions are associated with high population density coastal regions, large active ports, biologically productive regions with important applications for search and rescue, coastal environmental management, fisheries management, defence and security and many others.
The timescale for scheduling satellite missions and the competition for the budget has impacted the continuity of altimetry over the past decade and into the future. Securing an operational observing system is critical to national service providers delivering reliable, quality ocean services required to attract the full spectrum of applications. The application of forecast SST and surface currents for mature prediction systems such as NWP and wave forecasting will also not be fully realised until ocean prediction systems achieve homogeneous skilful performance. The future progression toward fully coupled ocean-wave-NWP systems for short-range prediction will similarly require high reliability and quality from the ocean observing system. SSHAODT is currently considered the most critical component of this observing system for ocean prediction systems.
SSHAODT is used in ocean models to provide adjustments to the sub-surface density structure of the ocean. It is critical that a global in situ profiling system be maintained to calibrate/validate these projections and further constrain the deep ocean through assimilation. The transition of part or all of the existing Argo system to permanent funding is critical to operational ocean prediction.
SSHAODT observations can also be exploited in the coastal regions, however the spatial and temporal requirements in the coastal zone place greater constraints on the existing remote sensing observing system. Wider-swath observations would add significant value in this zone as well as the open ocean. Enhancing existing coastal tide gauges networks will also add significant value to ocean prediction systems in the shelf zone.
2.4 Sea-Ice parameters (thickness, coverage / concentration, type / form, and movement)
Sea-ice charts containing information of sea-ice thickness, coverage / concentration, type / form and movement are produced in support of marine operations, validation of models and for climatological studies.
Although broad knowledge of the extent of sea-ice cover has been totally revolutionized by satellite imagery, observations from shore stations, ships and aircraft are still of great importance in establishing the ground truth of satellite observations. At present, observations of floating ice depend on instrumental and, to lesser extent, on visual observations. The instrumental observations are by conventional aircraft and coastal radar, visible and infra-red airborne and satellite imagery, and more recent techniques, such as passive microwave sensors, laser airborne profilometer, scatterometer, side-looking (airborne) radar (SLAR / SLR) or synthetic aperture radar (SAR, satellite or airborne).
Visual observations from coastal settlements, lighthouses and ships provide an ice report several times a day as the ice changes in response to wind and ocean currents, but the total area of ice being reported is very small (e.g., from a ship, observations can cover a radius of only 78 km; from a coastal lighthouse, observations can cover a radius of 20km). In some marine areas, such as the Baltic Sea, visual observations may be present in sufficient numbers that a reasonable proportion of the ice cover can be reported each day by a surface network. In others such as the Gulf of St Lawrence, where the waterways are broad and the shores often unsettled, no shore reporting system can provide data on more than a very small percentage of the total ice cover. Although surface based reports can provide excellent detail about the ice, especially its thickness, it is generally recognized that for most areas, the surface reports are not really adequate to describe ice conditions fully.
Surface reports from shore stations, ships and drifting buoys provide accurate information on ice amount, thickness, movement and its deformation over rather small areas. When many vessels and fixed observing points are available accurate information can be provided in restricted waterways. Many areas of the Kattegat and Baltic Sea coastline fall into this category.
Reports about the ice coverage taken from the air, i.e., helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft, have the advantage of a much better viewing angle; the platforms flying speed allows a great deal more of the sea-ice to be reported; and problems of remoteness from airports or other suitable landing sites can be overcome by using long-range aircraft. In the various stages of development of sea-ice, estimates its amount; notes its deformation and the snow cover or stage of decay data are provided by visual estimation. Comprehensive aerial reporting has its own particular requirements beginning with an accurate navigational system when out of sight of land. Inclement weather fog, precipitation and low cloud will restrict or interrupt the observations and the usual problems of flying limits at the aircraft base may also be a factor even if the weather over the ice is adequate for observing.
Recent advances in technology are now permitting more accurate data to be obtained by aerial observations. SLAR and SAR can provide information, which documents precisely the distribution and nature of the ice in one or two belts along the flight path of the aircraft for distances of up to 100km on each side. Unlike most other sensors, the radar has the capability of monitoring the ice under nearly all weather conditions.
When no fog or low clouds are present a laser airborne profilometer can be used to measure the height and frequency of ridges on the ice, and under similar conditions an infra-red airborne scanning system can provide excellent information with regard to floe thickness in the ranges below 30cm.
The advent of earth-orbiting meteorological satellites has added a third, and now the most important and predominant mode of observing sea ice but again there are some restrictions. The spectral range of the sensors may be visible, infra-red, passive or active microwave or a combination of these. Satellite coverage may be broad at low resolution or cover a narrow swathe at high-resolution. In the latter case, data from a particular location may be obtained only at temporal intervals of several days.
In general, most meteorological satellites provide 1012 passes daily in the Polar Regions, i.e., complete coverage of Polar Regions once or twice a day. These satellites provide visible and infra-red imagery with resolutions of 250m1km; and passive microwave and scatterometer data at coarser resolutions of 670km good horizontal / temporal coverage.
Visible and infra-red data do not have cloud-penetrating capability while microwave data are practically cloud independent. Active microwave SAR data are characterized by improved ground resolution (approximately 10100m) but a reduced coverage due to narrow swathes and greater revisit time between exact repeat orbits. Snow cover on the ice and puddles on the floes are other complicating factors. Interpretation of SAR images may be even more difficult due to the ambiguities associated with SAR backscatter from sea-ice features that vary by season and geographic region.
Space-borne sensors can provide precise data on the location and type of ice boundary, concentration or concentration amounts (in tenths or percentages) and the presence or absence of leads, including their characteristics, if radar sensors are used. Less accurate information is provided on the stages of development of the sea ice including the FY / MY ratio, forms, with an indication of whether ice is land-fast or drifting, stages of ice melting and ice surface roughness. Flow motion over approximately 1224-hour intervals can often be determined through the use of imagery from sequential orbits.
2.5 Sea-Surface Temperature (SST)
High-resolution sea-surface temperature (SST) observations are required for: (i) NWP (addressed in the global and regional NWP SoGs); (ii) Seasonal to Inter-annual Forecast (addressed in the SIA SoG); (iii) ocean forecasting systems (assimilation in and validation of ocean models); climate modelling; and, (iv) marine services.
Coastal and inland seas users are defined as those using SST data products for regional ocean modelling and marine services. SST in the coastal and inland regions have a large variability due to the diurnal cycle of solar radiation, which enhances surface characteristics of the land and sea and forces land-air-sea interactions, i.e., land-sea breezes. Typically, this user group has a requirement for ultra-high resolution SST data sets (1km spatial resolution and <6 hours temporal resolution), with good accuracy (< 0.1 Ck) and temporal coverage (hourly).
The table below specifies the consolidated user requirements for ocean forecasting systems and marine services.
Spatial resolution Threshold (km)Delivery timeliness (hours)Accuracy (KC)TargetThresholdCoastal Ocean forecasting< 1101133< 0.10.5Open Ocean forecasting5-10251163< 0.10.5Marine modeling250.086 1Maritime safety Services10131Climate modeling10012720.5Atmospheric modeling1000.086 1
Ships and moored and drifting buoys provide observations of sea-surface temperature of good temporal frequency and acceptable accuracy as long as required metadata (e.g., the depth of the measurement is essential for deriving the diurnal cycle and the foundation temperature) are provided. Coverage is marginal or worse over some areas of the ocean globe. There is a requirementgoal for high quality SST in open ocean, ideally is ideally 5km spatial scale with accuracy < 0.10.5 Ck on 5km spatial scale, and fast delivery (availability within 1h or less). In coastal regions, higher density is requiredthe goal is 1 km with delivery period of I hour (accuracy < 0.1 C1k on 10 km spatial scale). For climate and Atmospheric modelling the spatial scale is a bit higher (100km) with delivery time of 12 hrs for climate and 0.08 hrs for Atmospheric modelling.
Drifting Buoy and other in situ SST measurements are used for calibration / validation of satellite data, in the error estimation for observations products and in the combined analysis products. They are critically important providing bias correction of these data. Satellite biases can occur from orbit changes, satellite instrument changes and changes in physical assumptions on the physics of the atmosphere (e.g., through the addition of volcanic aerosols). Thus, drifting buoy and other in situ data are needed to correct for any of these changes.
Satellite measurements provide high-resolution sea surface temperature data. Both infra-red and microwave satellite data are important. Microwave sea-surface temperature data have a significant coverage advantage over infra-red sea-surface temperature data, because microwave data can be retrieved in cloud-covered regions while infra-red cannot. However, microwave sea-surface temperatures are at a much lower spatial resolution than infra-red. In addition microwave sea-surface temperatures cannot be obtained within roughly 50km of land. A combination of both infra-red and microwave data are needed because they have different coverage and error properties.
Instruments on polar satellites provide information with global coverage in principle, good horizontal and temporal resolution and acceptable accuracies (once they are bias-corrected using in situ data), except in areas that are persistently cloud-covered (which includes significant areas of the tropics). High-resolution SSTs (1 km) can be retrieved by the LEO infra-red radiometer and rather degraded resolution SSTs (5 km) from the GEO IR radiometer. However, quantitative detection of the SST diurnal cycle is still challenging subject but drifters can provide high temporal resolution SST data. In contrast, microwave radiometers cannot be used for the coastal applications because of: (a) rather coarse spatial resolution; and, (b) contamination of land signals in the measurement in the coastal sea.
2.6 Sea-Surface Salinity (SSS)
High-resolution and high quality sea-surface salinity (SSS) observations are required for ocean forecasting systems (assimilation in and validation of ocean models); marine modelling and climate modeling. Applications for Sea-surface Salinity are expected to also include Seasonal to Inter-annual forecasting and NWP.
Frequent sea-surface salinity sampling with global coverage and sufficient accuracy will provide a constraint on the temporal and spatial distribution of precipitation. The remote sensing instrumentation remains experimental and the full impact of these observations is yet to be determined. None the less, there is a requirement to constrain this state variable at the surface where the variability is greatest and the mass fluxes are known to have large errors.
Coastal and inland seas users are defined (as per SST above) as those using SSS data products for regional ocean modelling and marine services. SSS in the coastal and inland regions have a larger variability due to coastal systems (e.g., upwelling/downwelling processes) and river discharge as well as enhanced evaporation in regions shallower than the optical depth or weak circulation. Typically, this user group has a requirement for higher resolution SSS data sets (1km-5km 30km spatial resolution and <66 hours temporal resolution), with good accuracy (< 0.1-0.7 psu) and temporal coverage (hourly). The spatial scales of variability in the open ocean are dominated by the mesoscale with a resolution of 10-25km100km and same temporal resolution as in coastal.of 12-25 hours. The accuracy range represents thresholds of accuracy that will impact an analysis and depend on the region of the ocean being observed.
The climate and marine modelling spatial resolution are 1000 and 30km with with temporal resolution of 12 hours respectively.
The table below specifies the user requirements for ocean forecasting systems and marine services.
Spatial resolution (km)Delivery timeliness (hours)Accuracy (psu)TargetThresholdCoastal Ocean forecasting< 1 -5 303 6061800.1< 0.1-0.7Open Ocean forecasting10-2510012 6024 1800.1 < 0.1-0.7Marine modeling303240.1Climate modeling1000247200.1
Ships and moored and other in situ observations of sea-surface salinity of good temporal frequency and acceptable accuracy as long as required metadata (e.g., the depth of the measurement is important for deriving the freshwater lens effects) are provided. Coverage is marginal or worse over some areas of the ocean globe. There is a requirement for high quality SSS in open ocean, ideally with accuracy < 0.1-0.7 psu on 10km spatial scale, and fast delivery (availability within 1h). In coastal regions, higher density is required (accuracy < 0.1 psu on 1km spatial scale).
2.7 Sub-surface Temperature, Salinity and Density
Sub-surface temperature, salinity and density observations are required for: (i) Seasonal to Inter-annual Forecast (SIA) (addressed in the SIA SoG); (ii) for testing and validation of ocean forecasting models; and, (iii) marine services/modelling and, climate modeling.
The Tropical Atmosphere Ocean (TAO) / TRITON moored buoy network provides data with good frequency and accuracy, and acceptable spatial resolution for the tropical Pacific. The TAO Tropical Moored Buoy Arrays provide data of marginal vertical resolution for marine services applications (~50m down to 500m), which require high vertical resolution data in the mixed layer. The tropical moored network in the Atlantic (PIRATA) is acceptable. The Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction (RAMA) is being developed but is providing only marginal sampling at the moment. Sustained funding for the Tropical Moored Buoy Arrays remains a matter of concern.
Ships (XBT profiles) provide temperature profile data of acceptable spatial resolution over many of the targeted frequently repeated and high [horizontal resolution] density lines. However, about half the targeted lines are still poorly sampled. Temporal resolution is marginal, and acceptable in some ship specific lines. XBTs provide data with good vertical resolution (typically 1m) down to 1000m depth in delayed mode, but real-time data are constrained to limitation in the GTS traditional character codes being used at the moment.
The Argo profiling floats provide global coverage of temperature and salinity profiles to ~2000 m, mostly with acceptable-to-good vertical (every ~5m) and spatial resolutions, but only marginal temporal resolution, particularly for marine services. The accuracy is acceptable for assimilation in ocean models and for marine services. The existing sampling is adequate for ocean prediction in regions of low spatial and temporal variability. However, regions of more active geostrophic turbulence would be enhanced through higher spatial/temporal sampling. An autonomous based system will typically spend less of its life-time in such regions and therefore adequate sampling presents a challenge. Targeted deployment into these regions together with modified cycling patterns to achieve the required sampling for ocean prediction applications.
2.8 Ocean chlorophyll concentrationColour
Ocean colourOcean Chlorophyll concentration observations are required for marine services applications and for validation of ocean models. The ocean colourOcean Chlorophyll concentration remote sensing provides images of biological / non-biological parameters with high-spatial resolution (250m to 1km). The ocean colourOcean Chlorophyll concentration can detect several types of marine pollutions, harmful algae and red tide plankton blooms. Parameter retrieval algorithm in turbid waters is not established yet, but developments of an observation system based on the Ocean ColourOcean Chlorophyll concentration remote-sensing have presented promising results for a future operational observing system. In situ measurements are needed to complement satellite ocean colourOcean Chlorophyll concentration observations. These measurements should be accompanied by real-time daily observations of ocean temperature, surface wind and derived dynamic height.
2.9 3-D Ocean Currents
Observations of 3-D ocean currents are required for marine services applications, and for testing and validation of ocean models.
Inferred surface currents from drifting buoys are acceptable in terms of spatial coverage and accuracy and marginal temporal resolution. Targeting deployments of drifting buoys into regions of high variability such as boundary currents and downstream geostrophic turbulence would help enhance its impact to ocean prediction systems. Moored buoys are good in temporal resolution and accuracy, but marginal or worse otherwise. The Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) provides observations of ocean currents over a range of depths, with acceptable accuracy. Coverage is marginal or worse over some areas of the ocean globe, and marginal vertical resolution for marine services applications, which require high vertical resolution data in the mixed layer.
Satellite altimetry is being used to infer the distribution of ocean currents (geostrophic velocity). Satellite altimetry provides more homogeneous space and time coverage than in situ observations, but they cannot determine mean currents. Velocities derived from Lagrangian drifters are acceptable in terms of accuracy (2 cm / s) and spatial coverage (5 lat. / lon.), but marginal temporal resolution (typically 1 month). Satellite altimetry permits to derive the ageostrophic motion (e.g., centrifugal, Ekman, ageostrophic submesoscale) and the time-mean motion. Satellite altimetry permits to detect geostrophic eddies. Global mean dynamic topography can be obtained by combining information on the geoid, altimeters, drifters, wind field, and hydrography. These products are poor in terms of timeliness required for marine services applications. HF Radars provide for good temporal and spatial resolution in coastal regions, and marginal accuracy.
2.10 Bathymetry, Coastal Topography and Shorelines (colouring ali)
Observations of bathymetry, coastal topography and shorelines are required for ocean and coastal modelling. Very high-resolution data are required due to the gradual changes of the coastline through erosion and accretion processes relating to coastal meteorological and oceanographic phenomena (e.g., waves, storm surges and sea ice). Visible and infrared imagers (i.e., Landsat, Spot), synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and aerial photography provide good information on the coastline and coastal topography.
Many sonar techniques have been developed for bathymetry. Satellite altimeters map deep-sea topography by detecting the subtle variations in sea level caused by the gravitational pull of undersea mountains, ridges, and other masses. These provide global coverage and acceptable-to-good accuracy.
2.11 Surface Wind vector over the Ocean and Coastal Areas (10m)
High-resolution surface wind vector over the ocean and coastal areas is required as an input field for ocean models (including wave models), and for marine services; marine modelling and atmospheric modeling. The surface wind is a key variable for driving ocean models and to nowcast and forecast marine meteorological and oceanographic conditions. It is strongly influenced by the coastal topography and land-sea surface conditions. Traditional global and regional NWP products do not have enough spatial resolution for marine services applications, as well as for coastal modelling.
Voluntary Observing Ships (VOS) and meteorological and oceanographic moored buoys provide observations of acceptable frequency. Accuracy is acceptable. Coverage is marginal or worse over large areas of the ocean globe. The tropical moored buoy network has been a key contributor for surface winds over the last decade, particularly for monitoring and verification, providing both good coverage and accuracy in the equatorial Pacific. Fixed and drifting buoys and VOS outside the tropical Pacific provide observations of marginal coverage and frequency; accuracy is acceptable. Wind observations from drifting buoys are poor.
Polar satellites provide information on surface wind, with global coverage, good horizontal resolution, and acceptable temporal resolution and accuracy. The microwave scatterometer has limited spatial resolution (25km), and the wide swath SAR measurement has limited temporal resolution (one measurement every few days) and provides no wind direction.
2.12 Surface pressure
Ships and buoys take standard surface observations of several atmospheric variables, including surface pressure. In relatively shallow waters, oil platforms do the same, but the frequency and spatial coverage are marginal for marine services applications. Mean sea level pressure is vital to detect and monitor atmospheric phenomena over the oceans (e.g., tropical cyclones) that significantly constrain shipping. As stated in the SoG for Synoptic Meteorology, even very isolated stations may play an important role in synoptic forecasting, especially when they point out differences with NWP model outputs.
2.13 Surface heat flux over the ocean
High-resolution surface heat flux over the ocean is required as input fields to ocean models and for marine services. Surface heat flux is of critical importance to improve the skill of forecasts of sea surface temperature and entrainment of heat into the surface mixed layer. Improved performance will have impacts on NWP forecasts, sonar prediction as well as reduce background errors in ocean data assimilation. Total heat flux is composed of downward shortwave, net longwave, latent heat flux and sensible heat flux. Accuracy strongly depends on both cloud physics parameterisations and radiation physical parameterisations and adequate atmospheric observing systems. NWP products are reliable and provide adequate products for current applications.
High quality marine met stations are required to more accurately observe the fluxes over the ocean to enhance the physical parameterisations contained in the NWP products. Deployment of met stations in mid- and high-latitudes will further enhance this development over the range of conditions that occur at the air-sea interface.
2.14 Visibility
Poor visibility is a major hazard to all vessels because of the increased danger of collision. Surface visibility observations are made primarily by ships, and at the coastal stations (mainly at harbours, where the VTS (Vessel Track System is usually available)). This parameter can vary substantially over short distances. Accuracy is acceptable in coastal areas and marginal in open ocean. Horizontal / temporal resolution is poor over the most of the global ocean. Satellite and radar data are the only means for providing information on visibility, including fog, in the open-ocean and near-shore, respectively. Typically, visibility is deduced from the output of regional atmospheric models (see regional NWP SoG).
2.15 Summary of the Statement of Guidance for Ocean Applications
The following key points summarize the SoG for Ocean Applications:
Satellite data are the only means for providing high-resolution data in key ocean areas where in situ observations are sparse or absent;
In general, in situ met-ocean data and observations are insufficient for marine services (in particular, for monitor and warning marine-related hazards) and marginal for assimilation in ocean models, including wave models;
Better integration of met-ocean measurements into NHMSs and their sustainability are needed; and,
In general, there is a requirement for fast delivery of met-ocean data.
The critical met-ocean variables that are not adequately measured (more accurate and frequent measures and better spatial/temporal resolution are required) by current or planned systems are:
Waves parameters (significant wave height, dominant wave direction, dominant wave period, Wave 1-D and 2-D spectrawave directional energy frequency spectrum) noting that extreme wave and wind gusts events significantly constrain shipping and other marine operations, it is recommended the collocation of wind and wave sensors;
Sea level noting the wide-range of requirements for sea level data depending on the application area (since early detection of e.g., tsunamis to long-term trends of sea level rise), the requirements for this variable into the database should be carefully addressed;
Surface pressure noting that sea-surface pressure data from drifting and moored buoys are still limited, particularly in tropical regions where these data are vital to detect and monitor atmospheric phenomena over the oceans (e.g., tropical cyclones) that significantly constrain shipping, it is recommended the installation of barometers on all deployed drifters (1250); and
Visibility noting that visibility data are critical for harbours operations and as these are still very limited, the NMHSs are encouraged to measure visibility.
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p. PAGE 13
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