ࡱ>  bjbj 4<\'aal1ddd~$]r B"d  aaE    a8~  ~  0vD QHt}Ljυ0}ϊ ϊϊ>,d" Yddd(ddd    ϊddddddddd ': Draft Document---Note for circulation Mitigation against Coastal Hazards Sam Hettiarachchi Summary The purpose of this document is to present important aspects of mitigation of coastal hazards concentrating on measures that mitigate the impact of the hazard. The document focuses attention on multiple hazards of varying characteristics witnessed in coastal zones and therefore the importance of developing and operating within an Integrated Coastal Area Management Plan which has to be linked to a Multi Hazard Coastal Risk Assessment Framework. The document has four principal sections, namely, Approach to mitigation of hazards Measures that mitigate the impact of the hazard Measures that mitigate exposure and vulnerability to the hazard Measures that promote successful evacuation from the hazard This is followed by two Appendices on A1. Hazard Mitigation Planning within an Integrated Coastal Area Management Plan A2. Details of Coast and Flood Protection Methods The main thrust of the document is Sections 1 and 2, concentrating on measures that mitigate the impact of hazards including that of tsunamis. Sections 3 and 4 only cover overlapping areas with Section 2. It is recognised that irrespective of the source of the hazard the underlying principles of coast and flood protection methods are similar. Although the underlying principles of protection against flooding and erosion protection are similar, depending on the magnitude of the impact and based on overall risk assessment, larger and robust measures may have to be adopted to withstand the impacts of extreme hazards such as tsunamis. The document presents information on critical elements on how measures to mitigate the impact of the hazard can be achieved with an Integrated Coastal Area Management Plan. Contents 1.0 Approach to mitigation of hazards 1.1 Hazards, their impacts and mitigation 2.0 Measures that mitigate the impact of the hazard 2.1 Classification of measures that mitigate the impact of hazards 2.2 Costal Erosion and Storm Flooding 2.3 Tsunamis 2.4 Sea Level Rise 3.0 Measures that mitigate exposure and vulnerability to the hazard 3.1 Land Use Planning based on Hazard, Vulnerability and Risk Maps 3.2 Set backs 3.3 Development of Guidelines for tsunami resistant buildings 4.0 Measures that promote successful evacuation from the hazard 4.1 Evacuation 4.2 Education and Communication Appendix 1- Hazard Mitigation Planning within an Integrated Coastal Area Management Plan Appendix 2- Details of Coast and Flood Protection Methods Mitigation Methods 1.0 Approach to mitigation of hazards 1.1 Hazards, their impacts and mitigation The coastal zone comprising coastal communities, the built environment and eco-systems are exposed to a wide range of hazards both episodic and chronic arising from natural phenomena and human induced activities. Episodic hazards include severe storms, earthquakes, tsunamis and oil spills all of which have limited predictability and may result in major disasters. Chronic conditions include shoreline erosion, flooding, sedimentation, sea level rise and coastal environmental and resource degradation. These conditions which may result or increase from disasters arising from episodic hazards, relate to processes which could be measured and monitored. Unplanned or poorly designed engineering interventions in the coastal zone also contribute to the increase of chronic conditions. At a given location along the coastline, hazards are characterized by its source of origin, intensity, frequency of occurrence and the potential impact both in magnitude and space. For an existing and projected scenario of coastal zone activities, the preparation of mitigation measures for multi hazards requires a deep understanding of the associated physical processes over a wider coastal region. There are many mitigation measures that could be adopted in coastal zone management when planning for a tsunami and other coastal hazards that accompany high waves, heavy inundation and extreme impacts. They essentially deal with hazard mitigation, vulnerability reduction and improving the capacity and preparedness. In combination they reduce disaster risk reduction and develop hazard resilient communities. Therefore these measures could be broadly classified into three areas and the classification recognizes the overlap between exposure and vulnerability. Measures that mitigate the impact of the hazard Measures that mitigate exposure and vulnerability to the hazard Measures that promote successful evacuation from the hazard It is important that mitigation measures against coastal hazards be developed within a Multi Hazard Coastal Risk Assessment Framework which should be an integral component of an overall Coastal Area Management Plan. This will ensure an orderly, balanced utilization of resources and where possible, restore and enhance the stability and environmental quality of the coastal zone. In this context the preparation of hazard, vulnerability and risk maps for multiple hazards is considered an important part of the overall integrated approach. 1.2 Established tools to assist the Mitigation Process For a specific region, in particular, those which are prone to disasters, a thorough assessment of the prevailing and potential hazards, vulnerability and risks is essential to develop mitigation measures in order to achieve sustainable development. A number of tools and methods are available to analyse, visualize and evaluate hazards, vulnerability and risks. The most well established tools are the different types of maps representing the critical components of risks. Hazard Maps are broadly classified into three areas. 1) Event Record Maps which by definition record events. Types of processes, extent of affected area and date of occurrence are depicted in these maps. It is a first overview of the hazard and disaster condition and forms the basis for hazard maps. 2) Conventional Hazard Maps which illustrate the types of hazards and spatial extent of the process and areas possibly affected by an extreme event. These maps provide an overview of the hazard situation and establish priority setting for planning mitigation measures against impacts of hazards and land use management. For example, conventional tsunami hazard maps, which primarily relate to inundation, has to be developed for credible scenarios including worst case scenario. The maps should ideally indicate, -Inundation height -Run up -Intrusion Length -Current velocity and direction -Arrival times -An approximate indication of flood volume 3) Advanced Hazard Maps include additional information relating to the magnitude and frequency of process. These maps can be used effectively as a tool for mitigating the direct impact of hazard, land use planning, emergency planning and site monitoring. Vulnerability Maps should represent the proneness of society and its full structure to be affected by the hazard. They should include important parameters classified under the broader subjects of Human Socio Economic Physical Infrastructure Functional/ Essential services Environment It is a powerful tool for emergency management. Risk Maps should reflect the outcome of the Risk Assessment process which is a methodology to determine the nature of risk by analysing potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that could pose a potential threat to human life, built and natural environment and livelihood. Risk Assessment can be achieved in a number of ways, very often a qualitative classification or in some instances a quantitative scale based on annual estimate of damage or loss of human lives in a given area. Similarly Risk Maps can also be developed in a number of ways by combining information from Hazard and Vulnerability Maps. It is the most appropriate tool for decision making. Measures that mitigate the impact of the hazard 2.1 Classification of measures that mitigate the impact of hazards Although coastal hazards impose a wide range of impacts, coastal erosion, flooding and environment pollution have apparent and immediate consequences to man and society and are therefore often principal concerns in the administration of coastal districts. It is recognised that irrespective of the source of the hazard the underlying principles of protection against flooding and erosion protection are similar. However, depending on the magnitude of the impact and based on overall risk assessment, larger and robust measures have to be adopted to withstand the hydrodynamics of flow. Furthermore, the impact of episodic hazards may contribute to long term changes in sedimentation and coastal erosion. Extreme wind waves, storm surges and tsunamis are natural episodic marine hazards of concern. They cause coastal erosion, flooding, damage to infrastructure and ecosystems, environmental pollution and place human lives at great risk. However, flooding caused by tsunamis are different to that of wind waves and storm surges. In the case of tsunamis large scale overtopping of long waves of high amplitude is witnessed with massive inundation and flooding. Heights of the waves propagating inland and the mass flow of water may be very much higher than those observed for extreme wind waves and storm surges. These extreme events also contribute to changes in the bottom bathymetry of nearshore regions leading to long term changes in coastal erosion trends. In view the dynamic behaviour of the coastline, a mitigation measure against a given hazard cannot be developed in isolation for a particular location. There is strong need to understand the hydraulic behaviour of the existing coastline over a wider region, the impact of the hazard under consideration, the impacts of other potential hazards which are applicable and other critical interactions leading to the dynamic stability of the coastline. In the absence of this approach the problem is most likely to be transferred to a neighbouring region or the mitigation measure adopted may be undermined by the new hydraulic regime leading to structural instability. Measures that mitigate the impact of the hazard are identified as physical interventions or structural measures. These interventions may be achieved not only by artificial methods via Coastal Engineering Design but also by harnessing the full potential of natural coastal ecosystems. Such measures could therefore be classified into, The implementation of artificial measures for protection including off shore breakwaters, dikes and revetments The effective use of natural coastal ecosystems including Coral Reefs, Sand Dunes and Coastal Vegetation (Mangrove Forests) It is important to recognize that measures adopted at a given location or region will mitigate multiple hazards of different origin, potential impacts of varying intensities and spatial distribution and a wide range frequency of occurrence while sustaining multiple uses of the coastal zone. This could be achieved by either adopting a single measure or as on most occasions by developing a well integrated hybrid solution comprising a number of measures which also satisfies environmental concerns. Hybrid Methods therefore refer to combinations of Artificial Methods or a combination of Natural Methods as well as joint application of Artificial and Natural Methods. In the case of hazards having extreme impacts, natural solutions provide cost effective, environmentally friendly solutions for situations where the frequency of occurrence of the hazard having is low. Therefore within an overall Integrated Coastal Area Management Plan, measures which mitigate the impact of the tsunami hazard represents a coherent set of interventions, specified in time and space, to achieve a certain expected level of protection against existing or anticipated damage from single or multiple hazards and on many occasions being proactive in leading to shoreline restoration and stability. A project monitoring and control system is also incorporated as an important activity within such a plan. Sections 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 which follow provide relevant details on Mitigation for Coastal Erosion and Storm Flooding, Tsunamis and Sea Level Rise. The engineering approach towards Hazard Mitigation Planning within an Integrated Coastal Area Management Plan is explained in Appendix 1 and further details on different types of Coastal and Flood Protection is provided in Appendix 2. 2.2 Costal Erosion and Storm Flooding Coast and flood protection schemes can be broadly divided into two categories namely Direct Measures which confront the problem. These measures prevent or alleviate the immediate effects of the problem (eg. Protective structures) Indirect measures (Corrective measures) to take away the cause of the problem such as preventing sand mining and non obstruction of drainage paths for flood discharges Direct measures which include both natural and artificial methods are part of a wider coastal zone management plan which cannot necessarily take away the cause of coastal erosion but can contribute positively to reduce its negative effects to a great extent and on many occasions leading to efficient recovery via beach development. However poorly designed direct measure have the capacity to seriously undermine beach stability and increase erosion. Indirect measures focuses on the causes of the problem. For example, in the case of coastal erosion, the problem may be traced to excessive exploitation of sand or the impacts of previously constructed structures such as groynes for the protection of river outfalls. By adopting corrective measures the desired stable dynamic equilibrium of the coastline could be achieved. The coastline has widely varying natural defences against wave action and currents. These include the offshore seabed, sand banks, coral reefs on which waves break, beaches and dune systems. Dunes therefore represent the final line of defence. They restrict or prevent the intrusion of waves, reduce the impact of wind, salt spray and also control the movement of sand into back beach regions. Dunes on which coastal vegetation have grown perform more efficiently ensuring stability, greater energy dissipation and resistance to erosion. Sand Dunes have performed extremely against coastal flooding. Even when overtopped those having coastal vegetation on the surface have shown greater stability in resisting failure. Natural defences play a vital role in coast protection and conservation. However they may be in danger of degradation and it is very important to conserve and strengthen these defences at every possible opportunity. Such action enhances their capacity in performing their role as protection and conservation measures. There are a number of Artificial Methods used in coastal engineering practice. These include beach nourishment, fields of groynes, artificial headlands, offshore breakwaters, armoured revetments and concrete sea walls. Direct measures, with the exception of armoured revetment and seawalls are classified as beach management or beach control schemes because their aim is to ensure the development of a healthy beach as a way of solving the problem of erosion. Each of these works may perform a number of different functions and they will also have varying engineering life spans as well as different capital and maintenance costs. Depending on the situation it may also become necessary to adopt a combination of two methods for improved performance and efficiency. Such measures known as hybrid solutions are have been implemented successfully on a global scale. Sloping revetments armoured with rock or concrete units and solid concrete seawalls (vertical or sloping) have been widely used to protect land and infrastructure behind from the effects of coastal flooding. Theses structures which can withstand severe wave and flood induced loading provide sufficient protection, at an acceptable level of risk, to valuable assets located along the coastline. However these structures do not aid beach development or stability and therefore have to be used together with an appropriate beach restoration schemes. If used on its own adequate protection has to be provided against toe instability arising from high wave reflection. In implementing direct measures it is necessary to understand the nearshore physical processes in the particular region subjected to erosion and also the influence of such measures on neighbouring regions. It is extremely difficult to take materials out of the natural transport mechanism without contribution to new or increased erosion problems elsewhere. It is extremely important to harness the full potential of natural defences. In engineering design, attention must be focused on the potential impacts on neighbouring coastal cells and the balance of the sediment budget. It is in this context that it is important that any major Coast and Flood Protection Plan should form a vital part of an overall Integrated Coastal Area Management Plan. 2.3 Tsunamis Measures which mitigate the impact of the tsunami hazard are classified into three types, depending on their location and function in protecting the coast. These measures may be achieved not only by artificial methods via engineering design but also by harnessing the full potential of natural coastal ecosystems. The types of measures and typical examples for each category are listed below. Reduce the impacts of tsunami waves prior to reaching the shoreline (Partial barrier located in coastal waters) Protect the coastal zone by preventing the inland movement of tsunami waves. (Full barrier at the shoreline) Mitigate the severe impacts of tsunami waves on entry to the shoreline. (Partial barrier at the shoreline) Full and Partial Barriers both artificial and natural are physical interventions. In designing artificial barriers it is necessary to ensure the continuity of sustaining multiple uses of the existing natural environment. From an engineering point of view the design must be robust, reliable and functional. Due consideration must be given to convenient maintenance and effective operation. Equally it is important to minimize negative impacts on socio economic, livelihood and environmental issues. Priority must be given to good landscaping of the environment. Reduction of impacts of tsunami waves prior to reaching the shoreline. Offshore tsunami breakwaters which on most occasions are partial barriers will dissipate a part of the energy of the incoming tsunami wave. These could also be designed as full barriers with the inclusion of a tsunami gate for complete closure. It is possible integrate tsunami breakwaters as part of strategic port development project where by the principal breakwater of the proposed port will also serve as a tsunami breakwater. Coral reefs have the ability of dissipating tsunami wave energy. This is particularly so if tsunami waves reach coastline under low tide conditions where the reefs remain exposed. This aspect was clearly observed along the Kenyan coast during the Indian Ocean tsunami. Protection of the coastal zone by preventing the inland movement of tsunami waves High rise seawalls (dykes) are a full barrier against the tsunami wave propagation located on the coastline. Tsunami gates for tsunami flow prevention are usually installed across rivers and also included in seawalls to close openings in them which are used in normal times for access and regular flow of traffic. The closure of the gate will prevent tsunami wave propagation. Sand dunes can be used as full barriers against tsunami wave propagation. Their effectiveness was proved in many countries during the Indian Ocean tsunami. When overtopped sand dunes tend to fail progressively due to erosion and the presence coastal vegetation introduces considerable stability thus preventing erosion leading to failure. It is strongly recommended to adopt Sand dunes in combination with coastal vegetation which enhances stability and performance of dune systems. Mitigation of severe impacts of tsunami waves on entry to the shoreline Medium rise seawalls (dykes) are partial barriers against flow and will prevent tsunami wave propagation up to specific design water levels. The design permits overtopping beyond these levels. Therefore in this respect the stability of the barrier during overtopping and issues relating to inland drainage have to be given due consideration. Coastal vegetation can be used effectively to dissipate part of the tsunami wave energy via turbulent flow through the media. The dissipation is dependent on the density of vegetation, overall porosity and the tortuous characteristics of porous matrix of the vegetation. It is important that vegetation itself resilient against the tsunami wave propagation and loads and have a root structure to resist the high velocity regime at the floor bed. 2.4 Sea Level Rise Global sea level rise has wide ranging impacts on the coastal zone. When assessing these impacts it is important to identify and maintain the connectivity of several inter-related issues, all emerging as a result of global warming. Global warming generates a chain of impacts in which sea level rise is one. It is also important to recognize the global, regional and local scales of impacts as it would be the resultant impacts that would finally affect a given environment. In addition the temporal scales of impacts are also important in determining the significance of any particular issue at a given time. These considerations demonstrate the complexity of a comprehensive analysis of impacts of global warming which therefore tend to focus on predominant parameters in isolation such as seal level rise to which impacts due to other parameters would be added. Sea level rise on its own would, raise the mean sea level thus leading to inundation of low lying coastal areas, shoreline retreat, intrusion of salinity and impacts on coastal habitats. increase wave height thus disturbing equilibrium beaches and making them more prone to erosion and also interfere with existing longshore sediment transport rates and distribution. It is also recognized that change in climate due to global warming would also contribute to the reduction of the return periods of storms and floods thus increasing the frequency of extreme events thereby adding another degree of complexity to the analysis of overall impacts. Inundation, increases beach erosion and salt water intrusion are major impacts arising from sea level rise. Potential increase of existing beach erosion would normally be the combined influence of Submergence of land due to sea level rise Erosion arising out of enhanced wave action where the wave heights would increase as a result of sea level rise Erosion due to response of the beach profile adjusting to the increased sea level Sediment reduction along beaches due to changes in river sediment transport The principal objectives of coastal area management related to sea level rise are Avoid development in areas that are vulnerable to inundation. Ensure the continued function of critical ecosystems Protect human lives, essential properties and economic activities against adverse impacts Many responses to sea level rise, which have to be adopted in the long term, are very similar to those required to address existing coastal area problems. Hence planning and responses to sea level rise are best addressed by integrating them with coastal area management practices. If considered in isolation, the effectiveness of such responses would be reduced mainly due to incompatible policies and/or actions taken by other coastal sectors. A three pronged adaptive response strategy has been presented to combat sea level rise. 1. Retreat 2. Accommodate 3. Protect Retreat involves no effort to protect the land from the sea. Coastal areas are abandoned and the ecosystems shift landward. This choice can be motivated by the nature of assets to be protected and prohibitive economic or environmental impacts of protection. Accommodation implies that the people continue to use land at risk, but do not attempt to prevent land from being flooded. This option includes erecting emergency flood shelters, elevating buildings on piles, converting agriculture to fish farming or growing flood/salt tolerant crops. This option identifies the need for guidelines for buildings which have to be strengthened or newly designed and in doing so a clear understanding of increased exposure to the hazards. Protection by definition involves the use of artificial and natural methods of protection outlined in Section 2.2. By doing so existing land use can continue without major changes. The selection of the appropriate adaptive mechanism and strategy for a given area will have to be made after considering the economic, social, environmental, legal and institutional implications associated with each of the responses. Since the rise of sea level takes place gradually its impacts are not felt in the near short term. However, these impacts have to be considered and incorporated in the planning and design of countermeasures for other episodic coastal hazards. By working within a multi hazard, integrated coastal area management framework, complicated interrelationships among issues can be analyzed with a greater degree of confidence. 3.0 Measures that mitigate exposure and vulnerability to the hazard There are a number of measures that mitigate exposure and vulnerability to the hazard, including, Land use planning based on maps Regulatory interventions such as set back of defense line Hazard resilient buildings and infrastructure Attention will only be focused on overlapping areas with the main subject covered in this document, namely, measures that mitigate the impact of the hazard. Land Use Planning based on Hazard, Vulnerability and Risk Maps Land use planning can be achieved very effectively based on Event Record Map, Conventional and Advanced Hazard Maps, Vulnerability Maps and Risk Maps, Set backs and national policies on planning. The concept of living with risk has to be introduced because from a practical point of view mitigation can only achieve specific levels of disaster risk reduction and that too on the availability of funds for mitigation. Land use planning can be best achieved via the use of Advanced Hazard Maps. For multiple hazards these maps reflect the type of process, intensity of the process and probability of the process classified into different classes. The technical basis for these maps is the preparation of a set of hazard intensity maps for particular probability classes and then overlaid to determine the critical danger situation. This enables the classification of Hazard Danger Zones, for example, namely, Elevated danger, Medium danger, Low danger and Residual danger. Therefore for a particular geographic location, all prevailing and potential hazards are assessed. The levels of danger are then determined separately for each type of hazard using a combination of the intensity (magnitude) of the process at a particular location and its probability of occurrence (return period) at that location. The overlaying of the information on a suitable map leads to the final assessment of danger zones. In consultation with all stakeholders agreement should be reached on the permissible type activity for each zone. A typical example of such an approach is described below. Elevated danger- Prohibition of construction of new buildings while permitting the maintenance of existing buildings. Permission not granted to add value to existing buildings or resettlement of people. Medium danger- Construction of new buildings permitted according to specific conditions, with the specifications outlined in building codes to ensure the buildings can withstand the potential impact of hazards. Low danger- Restrictions not imposed on construction activities. However life support infrastructure and buildings accommodating a high concentration of people need to consider potential impact of hazards. Residual danger- Restrictions not imposed on land use. However critical facilities for life support and essential services must be hazard proof and preparedness measures must be in place for any unforeseen emergency. 3.2 Set backs Setbacks should be identified with respect to Advanced Hazard Maps and Risk Maps for tsunamis and coastal hazards. It is important to consider a multi-coastal hazard approach in determining set backs for a given region and should reflect the associated risk of hazards. Setbacks remain a globally accepted good practice in coastal area management. 3.3 Development of Guidelines for tsunami resistant buildings The coast is an area of high economic activity and it is not possible to transfer all activities to areas that are completely free from impacts of extreme events such as tsunamis and inundation arising from severe storm severe storm attack. Therefore there is a need to develop Design Guidelines and Construction Manuals for tsunami resistant housing and infrastructure for the benefit of the public and wider usage. It is expected that properly designed structures will be able to withstand to a considerable extent the impacts of tsunami waves with limited damage. For some areas of the coast, safe evacuation areas may be too far away for citizens to reach on foot thus necessitating vertical evacuation structures. Such structures must be able to withstand extreme conditions arising from tsunami wave attack It is recommended to develop Codes of Practice for the Design of Tsunami Resistant Structures. In this respect two types of guidelines are required. 1. Design Guidelines on Good Practice These guidelines should provide advice on concept, location, layout, orientation, structural configuration, geo-technical considerations and other considerations leading to good design practice. Such designs will enhance the robustness of the structures to withstand tsunami wave attack and other coastal hazards without total collapse or failure. 2. Detailed Design Guidelines These guidelines should provide information on hydraulic and structural loads, geo-technical parameters and detailed design information. The design approach should be based on the concept of design against failure and in this context attention must be focused on Failure Modes and the development of a Fault Tree. The Overall Design Guidelines could be developed from the experience gained from Damage Assessment from different parts of the country and such assessment should be analyzed in the context of the hydraulic regime which would have been generated by the tsunami at that location. Relevant information from other countries that have been affected by tsunamis will also be very useful for this exercise. It is important that Damage Assessment should cover infrastructure that was (i) Destroyed (ii) Damaged (iii) Survived (least affected). The proposed Design Guide Guidelines should be applicable to Rehabilitation of damaged structures Strengthening of existing structures (retrofitting) Design of new structures 4.0 Measures that promote successful evacuation from the hazard There a number of measures which promote successful evacuation from hazards, including, Early Warning Systems Public Warning Systems Evacuation Routes and Evacuation Structures Community Education, Maps for their benefit and Preparedness Attention will only be focused on overlapping areas with the main subject covered in this document, namely, measures that mitigate the impact of the hazard. 4.1 Evacuation Safe zones Safe zones to be determined with respect to Hazard Maps, Geographic location (Elevation, distance and available areas for safe zones) and Accessibility. Evacuation Structures The need for evacuation structures should be identified with respect to the population at risk and time available for evacuation to safe places, if such places have been identified. Evacuation Structures are mandatory in the absence of safe places such as high ground or elevated infrastructure which can safely accommodate people at risk. Even if such safe places and facilities are available it is necessary to be certain that the people at risk can be safely evacuated to such locations. If not supplementary evacuation structures should be provided. For this purpose it is necessary to determine the critical time for the tsunami to reach a proposed safe place for a worst case scenario after the warning is issued and the maximum time for evacuation. In the analysis a safety factor should be included to accommodate any potential delay in the evacuation process. Sometimes evacuation structures may be avoided by having additional routes to the safe zones thereby accommodating reduced density of the human evacuation rate on a given route, leading to high speed of evacuation. Evacuation Routes Evacuation routes have to be designed to permit human and vehicle movement to safe places and evacuation structures. The design should be based on the expected volume of humans and vehicles, speed of evacuation and safety. The design should primarily present the number of routes required, the width and the overall safety of the evacuation process. The design must ensure the safe passage of evacuation and risk of failure of the route itself under disaster conditions. Such an approach will identify weak links which may have to be rectified in advance and also recommend alternative routes in the event of failure of a prescribed route. 4.2 Education and Communication The community must be educated and made fully aware of the risk of hazard, potential disaster and the evacuation routes. Evacuation drills must be conducted to ensure training of the community on disciplined evacuation. A mechanism for this entire process to be monitored on a community led sustainable basis should be established. In effect it is necessary to ensure community ownership of this process. The maintenance of the evacuation route should be given high priority. The community must also develop and effective mechanism for communication duration the evacuation process. This will ensure the problems and issues of panic stricken population who are on the move are swiftly handled and resolved thereby minimizing the level prevalent chaos. APPENDIX 1- Hazard Mitigation Planning within an Integrated Coastal Area Management Plan 1. Coastal Hazards A hazard can be defined as a potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation (UN/ISDR 2004). Natural hazards include those arising from meteorological, oceanic and seismic phenomena and long term climate change. Human induced disasters such as oil spills in the vicinity of coastlines affect coastal zones and have serious impact on coastal eco-systems. Hazards also include latent conditions which may represent as future threats. Each hazard is characterized by its location, intensity, frequency of occurrence and associated probability. The Indian Ocean Tsunami focused attention globally on the fact that coastal communities and eco-systems are increasingly at risk from a number of hazards arising from natural phenomena or human induced activities. These can be broadly classified as Episodic and Chronic hazards. Episodic hazards include severe storms, earthquakes, tsunamis and oil spills all of which have limited predictability and may result in major disasters. The communities should be made aware of these hazards, their vulnerability and risks and should be educated on the importance of preparedness in responding to potential disasters which usually require long term post event recovery efforts. Chronic conditions include shoreline erosion, flooding, sedimentation, sea level rise and coastal environmental and resource degradation. These conditions which may result or increase from disasters arising from episodic hazards, relate to processes which could be measured and monitored. They require long term planning measures and restoration efforts to reduce risks. Unplanned or poorly designed engineering interventions in the coastal zone also contribute to the increase of chronic conditions. Although coastal hazards impose a wide range of impacts, coastal erosion, flooding and environmental pollution have apparent and immediate consequences to man and society and are therefore often principal concerns in the administration of coastal districts. Irrespective of the source of hazard, short term and long term solutions have to be developed for strategic mitigation and adaptation of these impacts. 2. Coast and Flood Protection Planning in the context of Integrated Coastal Area Management Coastal area management involves management, decision-making and programme design and implementation related to activities in the coastal zone. It also involves effective monitoring and control procedures to sustain multiple uses of this zone without causing adverse impacts on the environment. The coastal zone is exposed to a wide range of hazards originating from both natural phenomena and human induced activities. For mitigation and adaptation, it is therefore necessary to have a clear understanding of the hazards, their exposure, impacts, vulnerability and disasters. For an existing and projected scenario of coastal zone activities, the preparation and the implementation of an Integrated Coastal Area Management Plan will ensure an orderly, balanced utilization of resources and where possible, restore and enhance the environmental quality of the coastal zone. Protection of a coast against erosion and flooding caused by waves, currents, storm surges and tsunamis or any other natural phenomena or human intervention requires a deep understanding of the associated physical processes over a wider coastal region. It is in this context that the preparation of a Coastal Erosion Management Plan and/or a Coast and Flood Protection Plan is considered an important part of an overall Integrated Coastal Area Management Plan. Within an overall management plan, a Coast and Flood Protection Plan represents a coherent set of measures, specified in time and space, to achieve a certain expected level of protection against existing or anticipated damage from single or multiple hazards and on many occasions being proactive in leading to beach restoration. A project monitoring and control system is also incorporated as an important activity within this plan. It is recognised that irrespective of the source of the hazard the underlying principles of coast and flood protection methods are similar. Furthermore, in view the dynamic behaviour of the coastline solutions cannot be developed in isolation for a particular location. There is strong need to consider impacts over a wider region of the coastline without which the problem is most likely to be transferred to a neighbouring region. To overcome this problem sediment transportation along coastlines and the dynamic equilibrium are assessed via coastal cells and sediment budget computations. In coastal zone management, the coastal stretch is divided into a number of coastal sections identified as coastal cells. This division is based primarily on principal characteristics related to the coastal geomorphology, geophysical properties and coastal processes, also taking into consideration the nature and extent of the problems, economic values related to land use, the presence of existing protection works and administrative responsibilities. Within the coastal cell identified, coastal erosion and accretion can be understood, defined and explained in terms of the sediment balance (sediment budget) of that cell. Coastal erosion is essentially a result of sediment budget deficit. Therefore an understanding of the nearshore sediment transport pattern is of primary importance in coastal erosion studies. Sediment transport can be broadly classified into longshore and onshore/offshore transport. Longshore transport is generated by longshore currents, which results from several influences such as oblique wave fronts, tides, ocean currents and even, to some extent, river currents. Onshore/offshore transport is caused by the movement of water and sediment perpendicular to the coast, resulting from breaking waves and coastal currents especially close to the estuaries. Extreme events can cause major changes to these two critical components both in the short term and in the long term (Figure 1). The establishment of coastal cells and sediment budget computations provides an effective platform for integrated coastal area management and is a critical component of any coastal area management framework. By adopting relevant mathematical modelling techniques, this method provides information of the status of the coastline as well as how it would respond to a given hazard. The approach provides the basis for solutions and also enables the assessment of the impact of a particular solution on its neighboring regions. Within this framework alternative solutions to withstand the impacts of multiple hazards can be assessed and the preferred option refined to ensure minimum adverse impacts on the near field and far field environment. 3. Policy and Management Options for Planning for Coast and Flood Protection Coastal zones are economically very active regions and are under severe development pressure irrespective of the exposure to varying hazards. Human intervention in coastal systems can be classified broadly into two categories, namely, those which Protect existing assets against erosion and flooding (Passive Intervention) Establish and protect new facilities such as beach development, reclamation, artificial islands and harbours (Active Intervention). These interventions require the extensive use of coast and flood protection works within an overall coastal area management plan. Coast and Flood Protection Plans which form key elements of such overall management plans have to be based upon Policy and Management Options which reflect the strategic approach for achieving long term stability. Commencing with clearly stated aims and objectives the overall strategy establishes guidelines on policy issues and then sets out appropriate response options. The identification of alternative coast and flood protection measures is based on these options leading to the preferred solution for sustaining multiple uses of the coastal zone. Policy and Management options must be formulated preferably to function within the prevailing legal and institutional frameworks. The policy options identify possible courses of action on shorelines, as, Maintain existing line (Protect) Setback defence line (Retreat and Protect) Retreat Advance (Protect) The first option of maintaining the existing line applies to any existing line which is being defended and will generally be preferred whenever there is a substantial investment in infrastructure on the coast. On an eroding coast, the second option -set back- would be used to provide defences on the hinterland so that it is only necessary to defend against tidal inundation. This option can also allow natural features room to move while retaining a level of defence against flooding. The third option -the retreat- option is managed withdrawal, allowing the coast to return to its natural state and can be attractive where the tidal flood plain is relatively narrow. It would also apply where no defence is to be provided on a naturally eroding coast. Finally the fourth option - the advance option - refers to large scale reclamation creating land for development and also to provide for the possibility of limiting the exposure of low lying areas by suitable reclamation or the use of tidal barriers. The choice of policy options is largely dependent on the infrastructure and the extent of the potential flood and erosion areas for any given length of coast. In order to implement the Policy Options various Management Options are considered provided they are appropriate for the coastal classification and can be summarized as: Do Nothing - eg. Allowing nature to take its course, preferably with a monitoring programme in force Reinstate to previous state eg. Use of beach nourishment, through sand pumping, structural reconstruction etc Modify the existing design eg. Removal of existing features or structures, structural alterations, beach stabilization Develop new design eg. Embankments, linear protection intervention, in the form of dredging and sand by passing. By defining Policy Options and Management Options for the entire coast, the basis of a strategic management plan is established. As actions based on this plan are undertaken, aspects of the coastal characteristics will be modified and this in time is likely to alter the coastal classification.  APPENDIX 2- Details of Coast and Flood Protection Methods Artificial and natural methods as well as hybrid solutions are widely used for protecting coastlines against erosion and flooding. Following Section 2.2, this section provides further details of the respective methods. 7.1 Artificial Methods The standard artificial methods used for protection of coastlines include, Artificial Nourishment Field of groynes Artificial headlands Offshore breakwaters Revetments armoured with rock or concrete units. Concrete Seawalls 7.2.1 Artificial Nourishment In artificial nourishment an external supply of sand is used to replenish an eroding stretch of a coast. This method may appear to be expensive and the need for repetition of the process may not attract coastal engineers to adopt this technique. However, careful planning and considerations of capital and maintenance coast have proved that this method can be used effectively, particularly when there is a need to preserve the recreational function of the beach without erecting structures at regular intervals. This method will not have structures interrupting the beach other than those used as terminal structures. Artificial nourishment is attractive when the longshore drift is comparatively small. There is a need for maintenance in the form of recharging for which an economic source of sand supply is required. This method may not prove to be economically beneficial in the presence of severe wave climates which result in high rates of sediment transport. Beach nourishment schemes are generally considered the least objectionable of the coast protection methods from a view point of environmental impact as this method results in the substitution of beach material lost in the erosion process. Advanced and improved dredging techniques have greatly enhanced the viability of the application of these methods. 7.2.2 Groynes A field of groynes can be used effectively on an eroding part of the coast to reduce locally the longshore sediment transport capacity and thus control coastal erosion. In effect it is possible to transfer areas of erosion to less harmful locations. There are many successful applications of fields of groynes having been used to reduce littoral movement and developing the shoreline. Groynes are comparatively easy to construct and their effectiveness may be increased by initially adopting artificial nourishment as required. On the negative side, a field of groynes does cause a regular interruption along the beach and a certain extent of maintenance is required. Groynes can induce local scour and as identified earlier can cause downdrift erosion. Hence in the design of groynes due attention has to be focused on the length and permeability which influence the degree of littoral material that is trapped by the groynes, the cost and the level of efficiency required by the groyne field for a particular problem. 7.2.3 Artificial Headlands The fundamental difference between a groyne and an artificial headland is that the latter is a larger structure designed to eliminate problems of downdrift erosion and promote the formation of beaches. Although these structures may take a number of different forms their geometry is such that, as with the offshore breakwater, wave diffraction is used to assist in holding and developing the beach in the lee of the structure. A particular development of this type of structure, identified as the fishtailed breakwater, due to its shape, has been sued very effectively. It is important to conduct detailed investigations in the planning and design of these types of structures. Once constructed the beach development has to be monitored and sometimes it may be necessary to modify the tails of the structure after conducting further modeling of the functional state. 7.2.4 Offshore breakwaters Offshore breakwaters are placed generally parallel to and at a certain distance from the shore. These structures can be used to change the transport capacities both longshore and onshore/offshore to the coast resulting in accumulation in the lee of the breakwater. Therefore in general offshore breakwaters provide stable beach plan forms and promote the development of natural beaches. These structure demand comparatively less maintenance. On the negative side, offshore breakwater are fairly large structure and constructing them in nearshore regions can be difficult since the structures control littoral movement they can cause erosion downdrift if designed without considering this aspect. 7.2.5 Armoured Revetments and Concrete Seawalls The main purpose of a rubble mound armoured concrete sea wall (vertical or sloping) or sloping revetment is to protect the land or water behind from the effects of wind or swell waves. In the past these have been the most widely used option for coastal and flood defence ranging from massive vertical retaining walls to sloping revetments. This type of structures of large dimensions and having a high crest are used for tsunami defence in very high risk areas. It is the action of wind generated and swell waves or in the case of tsunamis the incoming wave that give rise to principal forces or movement that have to be resisted. Other water movements such as tides and surges may affect water levels at the structure and may give rise to local currents. There are many situations where hard solutions have to be provided in order to ensure sufficient protection, at an acceptable level of risk, to valuable assets located along the coast zone. Under these conditions it is customary to use concrete revetments and seawalls. Rubble mound armoured revetments and Concrete seawalls are usually rigid and steep relative to a mobile foreshore and therefore can have a substantial impact on the shoreline both in visual or amenity terms and in their effect on coastal processes. These structures are essentially used to fix the shoreline. High wave reflection and the resulting removal of littoral material lead to potential vulnerability to toe scour which can undermine the structural stability. Therefore these structures have to be used together with beach control scheme such as groynes and/or nourishment. If the structures are used in isolation, adequate toe protection measures have to be provided for long term stability. In the case of concrete seawalls not having adequate toe protection, it is customary for stability problems to occur unless the foundation of the structure is well below the seabed. Rubble mound sloping revetments armoured with rock or concrete units can be designed to offer good hydraulic performance. These structures are fairly easy to construct and little maintenance required. However, it is important that these structures are designed with due consideration to the desired relationships between the geometrical characteristics of the individual layers as well as the stability of the toe and the head. If due attention is not focused rapid failure could set in under storm attack and in this respect regular monitoring is required. When using these structures it is necessary to provide means to access the beach. Concrete seawalls offer a wide range of alternative designs. The availability of a promenade at the top is considered an important recreational feature and the use of steps provides easy access to the beach. These steps could also be used effectively for dissipation of wave energy during storm attack thus reducing wave reflection. Table 1 summarises the hydraulic functions and the manner in which sediment movement is controlled for different coastal structures. Figure 2 illustrates the plan view and typical cross sections of the relevant protection methods 7.2 Natural Methods Natural methods primarily comprise the use of sand dunes and coastal vegetation for coast protection and conservation. 7.2.1 Sand Dunes The presence of a healthy dune system provides a natural defence mechanism of environmental importance which has the ability to mitigate a wide range of hazards. The dual role of a dune system to perform as a barrier against wave attack and flooding and as a reserve supplier of sand to the beaches at critical times of storm attack and erosion are unique aspects which have to be understood in dune management. Of equal importance is the fact that beach and dune build up takes place during calm weather conditions. It is in this context that that the annual cycle of dune building and erosion be understood fully on a scientific basis in recognizing the human pressure and impacts of extreme weather related events on the coastal zone. Therefore the conservation and strengthening of natural design system is of great importance. Dunes are subjected to the wind and wave attack which takes place within the annual cycle. They are also subjected to extreme wind attack in the presence of cyclonic conditions and extreme waves during severe storms, storm surges and tsunami conditions. The compatibility between the demand on the dune system and the use of such systems against performance characteristics of natural dune systems with respect to its ability to act as a barrier, provider of sand and recovery have to be given high priority. 7.2.2 Coastal Vegetation Coastal vegetation on its own accord as well as those which grow on dunes are effective barriers against hazards. Coastal vegetation such as mangrove forests have proved to be efficient in energy dissipation provided the vegetation is of sufficient porosity, width, height and comprise of species which are able to withstand the high velocities at the base. Vegetation on dunes have the ability to strengthen the dune system and to increase its performance characteristics. However, as with any coastal ecosystem they are exposed to invasive plants and other mechanisms which result natural or human initiated which may lead to their degradation. These issues have to be recognized and understood within the overall dynamics and bio diversity of dune systems. 7.2.3 Role of vegetation on dunes In natural undisturbed conditions, coastal vegetation on dunes (dune vegetation) form an integral part of the dune system and performs a number of functions beneficial to the sustainability of the system. Dune vegetation can be broadly classified into three categories, namely primary species, secondary species and tertiary species. As in the case of natural species some of these exhibit characteristics of two different groups leading to overlapping. Primary species which are essentially grasses and creepers grow on the incipient and frontal dunes and perform effectively as windbreakers. Behind the frontal dune crest the sand on the dunes are more stable and the impact of wind and waves in particular are very much less. In this region there is greater diversity of plant species and larger shrubs become more prominent. Further backwards large trees are observed among a variety of species. The shelter and soil characteristics assist the growth of trees. During normal wind and wave attack, the primary species which are essentially grasses and creepers re-establish fast within months. The growth is assisted by sand accumulation and is a vital process in sustaining the function of dune. Dune systems are well exposed to the routine wind and wave attacks and the annual variations in the incident environmental conditions. They exhibit remarkable characteristics in recovery when subjected to severe stresses. During extreme events dune systems function efficiently exhibiting there ability withstand high threshold values. However if the incident wind and wave climates have excessive magnitudes they are subjected to severe damage. Wind can cause considerable impact on the dune profile and wave attack including overtopping can undermine the dune system. Sand erodes progressively in the presence of overtopping. Here again, dune systems which have a reasonable growth of vegetation are able to withstand such attack admirably and on many occasions with minimum damage and change in profile. The energy of the overtopping waves is dissipated by coastal vegetation and this is observed more efficiently in species which are well bonded by the root system. Dunes vegetation of all three categories is therefore very important for promoting dune growth, protecting them from wind erosion, assisting in regenerating rapid growth after wave attack and contributing efficiently towards sustaining the system under low frequency extreme events such as severe wind and wave conditions, including tsunami conditions. These have to be supplemented with public awareness on disaster preparedness, efficient evacuation procedures, incorporating planned evacuation routes and structures that effectively integrate with the overall planning process. 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