ࡱ> `  bjbjss .X2  FrFrFr8~r|r Ӫs6t"ttuvv3yydRTTTTTT$hZx vvxN \tuyyy u uRiRyyb .u~s 0[2._FrٓzR0ӪmSm,.m .$[zWd[z[z[zxx^[z[z[zӪ d4">$4 ">    Observing the ocean and forecasting its future: The development of the Global Ocean Observing System by Dr. Patricio A. Bernal Executive Secretary Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO UNU Global Seminar - 5th Shimane Session Oceans: Interaction between Man and Maritime Environments 2-5 August 2004, the University of Shimane Observing the ocean and forecasting its future: The development of the Global Ocean Observing System by Dr. Patricio A. Bernal Executive Secretary Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO 1. - Introduction. We often hear on TV, read in the press or even repeat ourselves that we live in the era of information. Recently the United Nations convened in Geneva the  HYPERLINK "http://www.itu.int/wsis/" World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) that took place on December 10-13 of 2003. The Summit confirmed that we are witnessing the transition from societies where the property of large material assets, heavy industries, was the main factor in economic development, to societies where information and knowledge are increasingly playing that role. This trend is at the base of the emerging new paradigm of knowledge societies. These are not empty words. They refer to the significant role that information and knowledge plays today in the production of goods and services, and in social interactions. In modern societies, information has an intrinsic and an exchange value that is protected through national and international regulations, most notably intellectual property rights and copyrights. Environmental information, although traditionally collected and distributed as a public service, is part of this fast changing reality. We need environmental information for many reasons: to understand better the way environment provides the ecological services essential to the survival of humankind, to design better tools to manage the environment, to protect it from unwanted negative impacts as the result of human-made activities, finally, global environmental information is critical for implementing a development strategy compatible with the preservation of the integrity of our planetary life-support system. Although information about our environment has been collected by different means all along the history of humanity, never before the demands have been as large as today. On the other hand, never before the material and intellectual tools available to gather that information at different spatial and temporal scales have been as advanced as of today. The data on which new environmental information is based requires significant investments in highly specialized technological assets, such as instrumental and communication networks and satellites. In final analysis, the decision to invest in a substantive development of these systems will be based on the demonstration of the social and economic benefits to society as a whole. Following current economic thinking, societies sees the investment into a given sector or area of the economy, as taking away those resources from a different, alternative area of the economy. This is the so-called opportunity cost. Why to do the investment in one area and not in the other brings the question of individual and collective, social and private benefits, in other words the value of the investment, and how to measure it, a key issue in environmental economics. Using the case of the  HYPERLINK "http://ioc.unesco.org/goos/" Global Ocean Observing System, GOOS, I will explore in this paper some of the exciting opportunities as well as some of the risks that are involved in the development of Global Observing Systems as the base for a wide array of applications and the development of information-products. 2. - The Beginnings. Much of ocean research, by necessity, is international. This is the cornerstone principle of the creation of the  HYPERLINK "http://ioc.unesco.org/iocweb/index.php" Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, IOC. Quoting from a statement by Dr. Roger Revelle, then director of Scripps Institution of Oceanography and Head of the USA delegation to the preparatory meeting of the first Intergovernmental Conference on Oceanic Research that recommended the creation of IOC in 1960: Scientific problems that require nearly simultaneous observations over a wide area or over the entire ocean also demand international co-operation in taking the observations, and close co-ordination to ensure comparability of results. An example is the present attempt to determine the total carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere and the change in this content with time as a result of the input from fossil fuel combustion and the loss to the ocean and biosphere. One of the questions we are asking is: Where is the carbon dioxide absorbed by the ocean? Does it remain in the surface layers or does it extend throughout the ocean volume? Another example is the proposal to study the transient state of the sub-surface currents in the Indian Ocean under the action of the changing monsoon winds. To attack this problem, synoptic observations made by many ships in a relatively short period of time are needed. As a rule, all the major ocean research programs sponsored by IOC in the last 44 years developed new techniques for observing the ocean and left behind a legacy of permanent observing systems. These are ensemble of automatic instruments operating over vast extensions of oceans deployed to optimally acquire data and information on a specific set of properties of the world ocean. Constrained by the resources available for their development and depending on the process to be studied, observing systems often were deployed in limited extensions of the world oceans, and were designed (or programmed) to sample ocean properties at a given frequency in time. A good example of these observing systems is the  HYPERLINK "http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/proj_over/map_array.html" Tropical Atmosphere Ocean, TAO array of buoys in the Equatorial Pacific. Established for the first time during the TOGA Program, these 70 buoys moored to the seafloor, collect data on the physical properties of the Ocean to a depth of 2000 m and broadcast this information to land-based centres and laboratories. The TAO array is part of a wider observing system, extending to the whole Pacific Ocean to monitor and forecast El Nio (Figure 1). These observing systems, coordinated by the IOC in cooperation with the World Meteorological Organization, are surveying the oceans on real-time. If oceanographers were restricted in the past to the use of dedicated vessels to go out at sea to collect the data and develop information, oceanographers of today can resort to these ocean observing systems to gather data over huge extensions of the world oceans. Since these data are collected under the auspices of IOC and WMO, the newly collected data are made available in the Internet, and following the data policies of these UN organizations, open to the use by anybody. The improvement of numerical weather prediction is one of the most remarkable scientific, technological and societal achievements of the 20th century. A similar improvement is taking place for ocean weather. Today there are organizations that run daily their numerical models of the ocean to assess the changing ocean conditions and to produce an updated forecast. Not all oceanography can be done through the use of existing observing systems, but we cannot underestimate this major change. 3. - The Origins of GOOS. The concept of the Global Ocean Observing System, GOOS, was proposed for the first time in IOC in 1987 and was officially endorsed as a programme of the Commission in 1991(IOC 1991a). As clearly stated in the intergovernmental Resolution informing the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) of its creation, GOOS is more than just science: GOOS is required for monitoring and predicting environmental change to meet global, regional and national interest. This system, to be coordinated by IOC, will provide for regular observations of major physical, chemical and biological properties of the World Ocean, including the coastal zone and enclosed and semi-enclosed seas. It will address such issues as global climate predictions and sea-level rise, as well as the coastal marine environment problems of member States(IOC 1991b). The development of GOOS i.e. the integrated operation of a series of observing systems covering the world Ocean, was the natural sequel of the international research efforts described above. From a scientific point of view, GOOS was conceived first and foremost to overcome some fundamental limitations of oceanographic sampling. One could say that GOOS is the continuation of ocean research by other means, or better, that the natural and logical next step in large-scale ocean research, called for new ways of organizing research efforts. Constrains imposed to ocean research by the use of vessels, made it almost impossible to study the variability of oceanic process, requiring repeated sampling in time. Even the so-called synoptic description of processes, were always subject to some aliasing by the mere fact that those descriptions were not obtained by the simultaneous observation of the whole process, but by sampling with a single ship moving along a trajectory in space and time. As stated by Walter Munk in the introduction to the book Satellites Oceanography and Society (Halpern, 2000), if it were to choose a single phrase to characterize the first century of modern oceanography, it would be a century of undersampling (Munk, 2000). But the study of ocean variability and ocean predictability is essential for the understanding of the earth climate and of climate change. In the Conference co-sponsored by IOC, that gave rise to Satellites Oceanography and Society, another oceanographer, Carl Wunsch, when answering a question from the audience after the presentation of his paper on decadal ocean variability, in his characteristically blunt style said: [oceanographers] will not be able to provide any scientific statement about the variability of many oceanic processes before we have collected lets say 100 years of quality observations. Again, not all scientific understanding of oceanic processes is subject to such demanding sampling requirements in the time-domain, but the recognition of these limits has prompted the community to think out of the box and propose solutions that could be collectively promoted and implemented through international cooperation. The IOC took the blueprint of GOOS to Rio de Janeiro in 1992, to the UNCED. The Summit did subscribe the recommendation made by the Second World Climate Conference (1990) to build a Global Climate Observing System ( HYPERLINK "http://www.wmo.ch/web/gcos/gcoshome.html" GCOS) and GOOS became the Ocean Component of GCOS. As such GOOS is sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the United Nations Environmental Programme ( HYPERLINK "http://www.unep.org/" UNEP), the International Council of Science ( HYPERLINK "http://www.icsu.org/" ICSU), and by the IOC that acts as the lead agency for its development. As part of their mandates, the individual observing systems initially integrated into GOOS have been under development by IOC in cooperation with WMO during the last three decades.  HYPERLINK "http://www.pol.ac.uk/psmsl/programmes/gloss.info.html" GLOSS for sea-level and IGOSS for the collection of data on the vertical structure of the upper layer of the ocean and the International Tsunami Warning System, are examples of permanent ocean services developed by the IOC, integrating data from tide-gauges, vertical probes launched by commercial ships, fixed and drifting buoys, bottom seismometers, and orbiting and stationary satellites. 4. - A useful application: Public services based on atmospheric and oceanic observing systems. The development of these new capabilities first in meteorology and later in oceanography enabled the development of permanent Ocean Services, i.e., the continuous, routinely delivery of information-products containing forecasted conditions for a given set of ocean properties. They are produced and distributed free as public services for the use of a wide range of end-users. However, as we will see below, the information in which these products are based by no means is restricted to public service applications. In an unprecedented step forward in inter-agency co-operation, the 13th World Meteorological Congress (Geneva, 4-28 May 1999) and the 20th IOC Assembly (Paris, 29 June-8 July 1999), approved the fusion of several long standing independent technical committees belonging to both organizations into a single body: The  HYPERLINK "http://www.wmo.ch/web/aom/marprog/index.htm" Joint Technical Commission for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology (J-COMM). The mandate of JCOMM is to supervise all the technical teams of intergovernmental experts in charge of the operational systems for the climate component of the Global Ocean Observing System. Some examples of current public service operations supported by WMO and IOC through the JCOMM are: The Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) is an integrated communications system using satellite and terrestrial radiocommunications to ensure that no matter where a ship is in distress, aid can be dispatched. Under the SOLAS Convention, the GMDSS provides for the dissemination of warnings, weather and sea bulletins broadcast via Inmarsat-C SafetyNET by all National or Maritime Meteorological Services appointed as Issuing Services. There are 17 metareas covering the world ocean (Figure 2) where information to all vessels at sea is available on 24/24 hours, 7/7 days basis. The Marine Pollution Emergency Response Support System. MPERSS's primary objective is to have in place a coordinated, global system for the provision of meteorological and oceanographic information for marine pollution emergency response operations outside waters under national jurisdiction. The areas covered have the same geographical distribution than those for the GMDSS. The HYPERLINK "http://iri.ldeo.columbia.edu/climate/monitoring/ipb/index.html"JCOMM Electronic Products Bulletin [J-EPB] provides information on real-time oceanography. Its continuing evolution is being implemented at the IRI for Climate Prediction at Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory [LDEO] of Columbia University, in response to the needs of the oceanographic and earth science communities for real-time oceanography. The format of the global analyses is standardized in such a way that monitoring products can be compared for decision making. In addition, the different data sets are available on line. Wave weather and climate Services: The Wave Programme under WMO was established in 1984 to provide sea-wave analysis and forecasts services. Codes for the real time exchange and reporting of marine surface data including directional wave spectra have been developed. National focal points for the programme have been nominated. Now the programme is being extended to also cover storm surges. Sea Ice Services: Navigation in ice-frequented waters is a hazardous operation. For this reason, national sea-ice information services have been established in many countries to provide support for such operations, through the provision of both climatological and real-time ice analyses and forecasts. International coordination and cooperation in this activity is done principally through the Expert Team on Sea Ice of the JCOMM and through the Data Buoy Cooperation Panel (DBCP), including its action groups the International Arctic Buoy Programme (IABP) and the International Programme for Antarctic Buoys (IPAB). 5. - A Distributed Large-facility. The possibility of integrate of the data from ocean observing systems together with the data from space satellites is changing forever the way we do oceanography and is bringing into being for the first time a true Operational Oceanography that can support the generation of new information-products in real-time. The convergence of three independent factors explains this development. First, the new techniques used today to collect data and information on the surface but most importantly under the surface of the ocean. These techniques rely on advanced electronics, miniaturization and extremely efficient circuitry to save power and prolong the average life of autonomous instruments. These instruments produce the same or better quality information with a fraction of the cost of using vessels. Second the development of techniques to observe the ocean from space. As discussed before, oceanographic observations from research vessels imposed severe limitations to the sampling of ocean processes. Satellite oceanography made possible for the first time adequate repeated sampling of ocean processes in the time domain. Third, the constant progress of computer technology. Computer power roughly doubles every two years. This has enabled the use of numerical models with sufficient spatial resolution to integrate all this new information into meaningful, realistic projections and forecasts.  In science, the observing tools have an intimate relationship with the subject and the methods we use to study nature. Scientists, by training and at least publicly, do not pose questions that cannot be answered. As any graduate student knows, to find a good subject for a Ph. D. thesis, is to find a small system that hopefully can lend itself to controlled experimentation under not so expensive and difficult conditions to attain. From the telescope of Galileo to the Square Kilometre Array ( HYPERLINK "http://www.skatelescope.org/index850.html" SKA) radiotelescope to be built in South Africa, from the microscope of Robert Hooke to the largest accelerator of particles of  HYPERLINK "http://public.web.cern.ch/public/" CERN, the instruments scientists use, determine to a great extent the subject of study and more importantly the ability to find the right answer. Conversely, the structure of science is such that it can be precisely known what will not be known without a given instrument. For example in 1993 the decision to not build the largest particle accelerator, the Superconducting Super Collider, was adopted. Before and after that decision, Steven Weinberg, one of its proponent, could exactly explain what we could learn about Higgs particles with the SSC (Weinberg, S. 2001a, b, c). However, more relevant to us is the conclusion arrived in the book Oceans 2020, the last assessment of trends in ocean science conducted by IOC in conjunction with SCOR and SCOPE. In the last chapter The vision to 2020 the editors (Field, J.G., G.Hempel & C.P. Summerhayes, 2002) identified 12 areas or topics playing a special role in the development of Ocean science in the next 20 years, the first three of these 12 are straightforward technological innovations or applications: 1) Remote sensing; 2) The information revolution and Ocean sciences; 3) The Globalization of modelling capacity. In their own words: We offer a vision in which remote sensing, information technology, and improved communication radically change the ways information is gathered about the oceans and the problems they pose and in the way they are presented to society. It is for this or the next generation of oceanographers to prove them right or wrong. Today the international scientific community is actively engaged in the planning of CLIVAR the Climate Variability and Predictability Study, the newest and most wideranging component of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP). CLIVARs objective is to move the forecasting window for Weather and Climate from days and weeks, to seasons and into the inter-annual range. The promotion of CLIVAR would have been unthinkable without the significant progress achieved in observation systems of the atmosphere and the oceans. To me, from a scientific point of view, a global observing system is in fact a highly distributed large scientific facility, analogous to a large particle accelerator or the SKA. It is an instrument that is allowing us to attack new scientific questions. I have no doubt that GOOS, as a global observing system, is the right technology and the right observation instrument for CLIVAR. 6. - A New Engineering But I also believe that GOOS is more than just the next observation instrument for oceanography. The technological developments involved in Global Observations, and specially the integration of the three components described in the previous section, are enabling a new engineering, that of global observing systems. To mark the difference I describe it as a new engineering, because what we are witnessing is the mergence of a second-order technology, that is, a new technological system integrated by the simultaneous use of several new technologies deployed at the global scale. Important as they are, the individual accomplishments of the different first order components, are not the key technological element. As other technical developments of this kind, it will be a major technological breakthrough, not so much for the technologies that go into it but because of the technological applications that will come out of it. If you permit me a rudimentary comparison with digital computing, it is not so much the basic flip-flop circuit at the base of any digital computer, or the parts that go in to build it that is the major breakthrough of digital computing, but the many applications that increasingly faster numerical calculations enabled them to do, including the simulation of special functions at which analogous computers were much better at.  Similarly, Global Observing Systems will be open to the practical experimentation by a large community of users; this is characteristic of the early phases of new technological innovations. We will have to learn how to use it to its limits, as any other new technology in the history of humanity; it will be available to open exploration and exploitation in new and unforeseen directions. Similar technological innovations had taken place most notably in space exploration. Serendipity and ingenuity are the right words to describe how these remarkable achievements have found their way into our everyday life. This is a potentially rich new technology. With the global system already established, it is possible now to apply better sampling strategies in time and space. For example, a particular energetic process, a tropical storm with a high probability to become a hurricane, could be better observed by increasing the frequency of sampling over the area in which it is developing. One can envision in the not-so-distant future, sub-systems components, satellites and in-situ networks, been jacked-up in sampling frequency over a given area, as feedback from interactive forecast systems running adaptive assimilation models become available to an operational control centre. Of course these developments are not just limited to oceanography. Similar developments are taking place in other areas. Many of these tools are been applied on land to monitor the surface waters, terrestrial ecosystems, forests, plains, crops; the atmosphere, including the chemistry of the high atmosphere, the ice-cover and the very substantial changes produced by humankind through the changing patterns of land-use. 7. - The Challenges of the distributed implementation of GOOS. The implementation of GOOS is coordinated by IOC and is financed by the member states of the IOC. That is true but is also a simplification. The scientific community in oceanography has done a remarkable job in designing a light, cheap and distributed management for the new observation systems. However, moving an engineering system from prototype and research status to the operational domain imply significant changes. Operations require dedicated specialists and careful plans to deploy, maintain and constantly upgrade the component systems. A system of quality control of the output is needed to detect early any sign of degrading elements and most importantly you need the material infrastructure to operate and sustain the system in time. In this sense IOC has a clear advantage as an Intergovernmental organization to be the hub of this distributed system, because among other things it can guarantee the universal character of the system, facilitate the exchange of primary data and information and help in the development of capabilities around the world. Of course the information obtained from these systems, once in the public domain, can be used, and is being used, by specialized organizations to generate and provide a wide range of applications and services, both public and private. There are several aspects to this challenge. 7.1. The first challenge is incremental funding. Although it is the funding of ocean research that has allowed the deployment of most of the observing systems that we have today, the financing of the sustained collection of data streams to be transformed in permanent Ocean Services on which other societal, public and private applications will depend, cannot depend exclusively on the funding for science. At first sight, since there isnt any other obvious source to fill the gap, this is seen as a huge menace to the stability of the international research efforts. Of course, this is not only a money problem. It is hard to imagine the best scientific minds of the world dedicating a significant proportion of their work-time to the task of running, maintaining and upgrading of a full-fledged observation system. But this is a very incomplete analysis. Until now, a very pragmatic approach has been used to promote the development of GOOS. The TAO array, mentioned above, was planned as science 19 years ago, but today it can also be considered as an operational array that is routinely maintained by NOAA from the USA and by JAMSTEC from Japan. For some, TAO is justified exclusively through research objectives. That is certainly true if the focus of research is to study the interdecadal variability of El Nio. For other, TAO is the backbone of the El Nio forecasting system. This could be an interesting academic argument if it not were by the existence of fiscal policies. Science program managers will simply say: If it is a scientific array, science can finance its operation. If it is an operational array, look elsewhere for funding. The solution to say but, it is both, research and operations, often does not help the situation, since that is usually interpreted as then the other can finance it and the project faces a high risk of falling in the cracks of fiscal policies. I will omit the mention of several examples of this occurrence, in which IOC has been directly involved arguing in favour of positive funding. There is also a second-order consequence. If funded as research, intellectual ownership of the project (and associated infrastructure) and the credit for its operation lies with the individual scientist or with a small team of identifiable scientists. If funded as an operational activity, that individual presence disappears melting into the operational plan of a large organization. Scientist get their recognition through the fulfilment of well establish, time-honoured practices, mainly through publishing in anonymously peer-reviewed journals. Data development and production, early release of data sets it is not recognized per se as a valid scientific contribution. Even some of these practices are pitched against some of the new developments. Early, or real-time release of data is not encouraged by the current practice of only recognizing fully peer-reviewed articles as bona fide credentials for merit and promotion in the academic world. There are some efforts to innovate in some of these practices by creating new incentives and establishing new standards, but these changes are slow. Space agencies, perhaps at a different scale, face similar problems as well. Research agencies like NASA in the USA or CNES in France, could finance a satellite that measuring the sea-level with high precision and accuracy was justified and dedicated to ocean research. Operational agencies like NESDIS in the USA and EUMETSAT in Europe will have some difficulties in doing so. Of course, nothing in life is black and white and remain static forever. Programme managers in most scientific funding agencies are scientist themselves and can see both sides of the argument and more importantly they understand the importance of these innovations in the long run. It is one of the most optimistic signals in the implementation of GOOS that precisely these four space agencies agree, not without difficulties, to finance the continuation of the ocean altimetry missions despite the fact that is not pure research, nor has attained full operational status. Here we can say that the views promoted in this paper were given at least the benefit of the doubt. This give us hope that the world community will be spared the cost of having the whole earth observation effort falling in the fiscal trap described above, but hard work lies ahead to produce more of the required convincing evidence. Are these just a matter of names or justifications? I do not believe so. We need to recognize that in this phase of development, both types of funds are needed on their own merits, but at the same time the community or at least its leadership has to responsible assume the huge task of enlarging the support that is essential to succeed. 7.2. The second challenge is institutional building. Member States at the national level, and the IOC itself at the international level, need to decide on the institutional arrangements to support the development of Operational Oceanography. Effective use requires organizations capable of processing the data, modelling and generating and distributing information-products to end-users. It is not just a matter of securing access to the data, important as this aspect is. These organizations do exist today in the public and in the private sector. There are different options here. Is this a development that each Member State of the IOC wishes to face independently, or would it be possible a joint effort within IOC, organized at regional scale, for example? Could it be that the global observation of the ocean could be the goal of a private consortium? This last hypothesis brings me directly to the next point. 7.3. The third challenge is economic in nature. Global observations constitute a very particular case of all the observations that can be collected. The main feature is the very large scale at which they are collected. In the upper limit, GOOS will be sampling properties of a single system: the Global Ocean. The sample size is one. Of course this is a simplification just to show the unique nature of the system that we are developing. The single global observation is interesting only as the upper boundary condition to all the other smaller scale processes. Starting from the global observation, at each spatial and temporal scale there are specific properties of the ocean that are related to that scale and others that spill-over to other scales. In theory, full forecasting capabilities would be available only if all scales are properly sampled. This is a huge technical requirement and challenge for the new engineering. Conceptually and practically this feature of a global system has profound economic implications. In GOOS, what is a local observation collected in the East Coast of North America, becomes a remote and distant observation for a forecast in the North Sea, and vice-versa. A local observation does contribute to answer a local question with some degree of accuracy and precision. This is why is collected in the first place. However we know that the remote broadcasting of signals carrying significant amounts of energy can alter and do alter the local canonical answer in unpredictable ways. From a practical point of view, there are absolute limits (spatial scale) beyond which appropriability of data from private observation networks face diminishing returns and a point where profitability eventually breaks down. Data originating from the local scale, where it can be considered in economic terms a rival good, start loosing its rival character, as they are collected at larger scales, becoming essentially non-rival goods at the global scale. I call the attention to this property of Global Observing Systems, because I believe it opens an avenue to develop a realistic model to build public and private services under a common technological platform. I believe that such a model exists today in another domain: it is the Internet. 7.4 Crossing the North-South divide: the challenge of capacity building. Today, only in very few countries in the south exist organizations prepared to make immediate use of the increased data streams produced by GOOS, transforming them into useful Ocean Services. These organizations do exist today in the developed world, both in the public and in the private sector. In the developing world, the challenge is bigger and relates to capacity building in the broadest sense possible, not only in science and technology, but in policy design, management skills, economy, that is, capacities not only in the know-how, but fundamentally in the know-why, using the words of professor Nazli Choucri Our experience in IOC and in WMO is very encouraging and is based on international cooperation. Many of the difficulties can be overcome and the track record of these UN organizations show that is possible to operate a global system that is inclusive to all nations of the world, providing public services to all its members. What are required are clear, stable rules to enhance cooperation efforts among members of the system. Some of the platforms for the new systems are large capital investments, and as one moves from north to south, they become relatively even larger. But if the building of an integrated system becomes possible, as the promise of GEO seems to suggest, there would be a division of labour in the building of the join system that could make this North-South transit easier. If the exchange of data facilitated by interoperable systems becomes a reality, the specialist organizations that are needed will depend on much cheaper technologies and knowledge. It is the knowledge that allows them to be specialists and provide good advise to their users. Their ability to offer services (and compete) is not in the data; it is in the knowledge to use that data. However they cannot use that knowledge without the data. If clear rules of the game backed by basic, solid agreements are established, major modelling centres running the more expensive global models are not needed in all nations of the world, and an agreed regional approach could be used to significant advantage. Finally there is a fundamental ethical or at least of equity issue at stake. If we are speaking of protecting the life-support system of the planet, including the major ecosystems of the planet that conform it, we are all involved and everybody should have equitable access to the information and the derived benefits. 8. - Private and public services in a post-Internet age. In the previous section we identified funding as the first challenge to implement GOOS. In the brave new world of finances instead of funding one has to speak of investment. Having spent a significant part of my last 15 professional years trying to demonstrate that expenditures in science are investments, although extremely difficult to demonstrate with the standard economic tools, I believe that I have some authority to attack this issue. There is an important corollary to the analysis in section 6.3: since the potential users of these new information-products come from a wide range of public and private activities, most of them on land, it will be necessary to efficiently segment the markets between public and private agents, with the goal of maximizing total economic benefits to society. Although society might wish to directly recover the cost of collecting the data by selling the data itself, I am firmly convinced that is the wrong approach. The benefits to society are increased by the free and open exchange of primary data and first order information-products and by allowing the development of a variety of specialist organizations that can tailor their products to the specific needs of their clients. These extra layers of specialists provide jobs, generate revenues and taxes and secure efficient servicing of final users. The specialists might as well develop additional local observing networks to improve their own products. For example, the detailed forecasting of the atmospheric circulation for purposes of Air-quality control and air-pollution mitigation over a city does require the establishment and operation of ad hoc dedicated instrumental networks. The decision of who owns and runs these denser local networks will be adopted based on the nature of the services and is a local political and economic decision, that is, to be adopted by each parliament or National government. However in order to develop a robust, shared technological platform among different users, public and private, there are some basic principles that will have to be agreed upon and some minimal basic rules to be established. At this stage, I only would like to make a plea for the application of a rational and efficient economic approach to this very important area of activity. However I believe that we are on much safer grounds that many people believe. I do not think is a mere coincidence that the declaration of the Summit of Evian of the G8 countries in 2003 called to Favour interoperability with reciprocal data-sharing among observing systems. This starting declaration by the countries that are the owners of many of the assets backing Earth Observations is very encouraging and points towards an already known model: the Internet. Having used the mail function in a Unix machine (a huge Burroughs mainframe) in ARPANET during my graduate studies in the seventies, and later BITNET and OMNET to keep up with my oceanographic research, in the eighties, I do not need to be convinced of the benefits of interoperability. Internet is fully based on the technological interoperability of the systems that participate. This property, although potentially available in the technology, was not an intrinsic property of the technology itself. But there were compelling reasons to develop inter-connectivity: reaching larger computing and storage capacity, reaching critical mass in targeted areas of research. In the case of Earth Observations it will be similar and require cool headed economics, technological mastery, and political will. As we will see in the next section the Intergovernmental ad-hoc Group on Earth Observations, is proposing exactly this approach for the architecture of a System of Systems integrating the several observing systems and agencies interested in its development. 9. - Beyond oceans and atmosphere: Global Earth Observations on its own merits. It is evident that I have been using the term Earth Observations in this paper with the meaning of integrated remote sensed and in situ observations. However this is not obvious to many because the term has a history and requires some clarification. In a broad sense, remote sensing is the collection of information about an object without making physical contact with it. Conventionally Earth Observations is often described as the observation of the Earths surface and atmosphere viewed from above using electromagnetic radiation []this narrower definition excludes such techniques as seismic, geomagnetic an sonar investigations, as well as medical and planetary imaging (Rees 2001). I am sure that more than one oceanographer actually twitched when reading the suggestion to exclude sonar from the toolkit for Earth Observation. The ocean, that is 70% of the Earth surface, is essentially opaque to electromagnetic radiation. Remotely sensed electromagnetic radiation by satellites reflects accurately properties from a very thin layer of the ocean, the so-called skin, few micrometers thick. Other properties must be inferred by extrapolation of the observed surface properties, to the vast volume of the ocean. This extrapolation is inherently uncertain and inaccurate. On the other hand, sound propagates in the ocean long distances and is used to ascertain a large variety of ocean properties, including temperature and heat. No matter how much order this techno-driven definition can produce, but clearly Earth Observations cannot be just electromagnetic-based observations from above, no matter how important and valuable these observations are. In the origin of GOOS, in the eighties, the dominant preoccupation was Climate Change. We wanted to ascertain the role of the Ocean in Climate Change. We still are at it, but society is shifting gears and asking from science to help directly with economic development and the alleviation of poverty. The main societal concern has shifted to Sustainable Development in a more general and comprehensive way than in the eighties and nineties: to improve all the economic operations that enable development by taking into account the limits set up by our natural boundaries. Nations have agreed on the need to protect the global ecosystems, from which integrity depends the stability of the life-support system of the planet. It is not just Climate anymore. In reality, UNCED in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 endorsed three Global Observing Systems: GCOS the Global Climate observing system which development was to be lead by WMO, GOOS to be lead by IOC and the Global terrestrial Observing System, to be lead by FAO. But the Vision implicit in this proposal did not come across at the time. Just take one example, GCOS, the Global Climate Observing System. In the words of his current Director is a system of systems, made-up by the integration of several observing systems based on land, ocean and the atmosphere. It is clear that some critical features of climate depend on land-based processes and factors. In the control of climate such disparate processes like chemical reactions in the high atmosphere or the physiology of trees in a forest play a key role. When GCOS was established some of the networks needed were already in place, although suffering from a constant degradation because of lack of investments. However, other needed to be built from scratch. So the priority mandate from UNCED in 1992 was received with optimism. Nevertheless, to complete the job, major developments should take place in the complementary domains of the ocean and land. After more than one decade this is still an open and difficult challenge. In 1996 the agencies involved in the UN sponsored Observing Systems subscribed a common Strategy for the joint development of these efforts establishing a permanent mechanism of consultation. In 1998 the same agencies, with ICSU as a partner, decided to join efforts with CEOS the Committee for Earth Observation Satellites, blending their efforts into a common Integrated Global Observing Strategy (HYPERLINK "http://www.igospartners.org/"IGOS). IGOS is being managed by an IGOS Partners Forum, which will further the definition, development and implementation of a unifying strategy. IGOS is a best-efforts organization. That is all its members contribute voluntarily to the common declared goals according to their own capacities and limitations. Although this sounds like an extremely nave and altruistic approach, it is not. Is a pragmatic approach to work together among organizations that have missions that are very diverse. From the point of view of the public-private divide, some are fully international public service organizations: the UN organizations. Others are National or International organizations with a mission either public or a mixed of public service and private business. From a functional point of view, some are exclusively in data-collecting/data-provision segment of the information production chain. Others cover data collection/data provision/service provision, and among these, some are fully public service oriented and others are public- and business-oriented. But there is another category that I would like to include: the absentees. The work of IGOS is followed by interest by many that are non-members of the process. I should mention among these non-members two important categories: public and private organizations that specialized in the definition and design of information-products and see the development promoted by IGOS as a potential boon to their activities. 10. - Earth Observations: a global mandate. The 4 of September 2002, the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa came to an end. In the words of United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan This Summit will put us on a path that reduces poverty while protecting the environment, a path that works for all peoples, rich and poor, today and tomorrow." And he added, The Summit has also generated concrete partnership initiatives by and between governments, citizen groups and businesses. These partnerships are bringing with them additional resources and expertise to attain significant results where they matter-in communities across the globe. IGOS declared itself and was recognized as one of these partnerships in Johannesburg. Not only this happen at WSSD; the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation agreed by Heads of States, contains an explicit call to Promote the development and wider use of earth observation technologies, including satellite remote sensing, global mapping and geographic information systems.  In 2003 in Evian, France, the G8 countries analysing the outcome of WSSD adopted an Action Plan on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development and choose three areas that present great opportunities for progress: co-ordination of global observation strategies; cleaner, sustainable and more efficient energy use; agricultural sustainability, productivity and biodiversity conservation and added In undertaking these activities, we are committed to working co-operatively with other developed countries. We are conscious that, to meet the objectives of the WSSD, developing countries and countries with economies in transition need to build and strengthen their capacity to assimilate and generate knowledge for sustainable development. We reaffirm our commitment made at the WSSD to assist them through international co-operation in enhancing their research capacities. It is interesting to read the strategy proposed in Evian for Global Observations: [To] Strengthen international co-operation on global observation. We will: Develop close co-ordination of our respective global observation strategies for the next ten years; identify new observations to minimise data gaps; Build on existing work to produce reliable data products on atmosphere, land, fresh water, oceans and ecosystems; Improve the world-wide reporting and archiving of these data and fill observational gaps of coverage in existing systems; Favour interoperability with reciprocal data-sharing; Develop an implementation plan to achieve these objectives by next spring's Tokyo ministerial conference. Related to this commitment, the USA convened the First Earth Observation Summit, in Washington DC the 31st July and 1st of August 2003. There the Intergovernmental ad hoc Group on Earth Observations ( HYPERLINK "http://earthobservations.org/" GEO) was created. GEO is leading the effort to integrate all the global observing systems, land, ocean and atmosphere, into a Global Earth Observing System of Systems (GEOSS). The 33 countries and 27 International organizations participating in the Summit, committed themselves to cooperate in the design of the 10-year implementation plan for the GEOSS. The HYPERLINK "http://www.ics-inc.co.jp/eos2e/"Second Summit held in Tokyo in April 2004 and inaugurated by Prime Minister Koizumi, approved a Framework Document that is charting the way forward in this process. According to the criteria adopted at the end of the First Earth Observation Summit and contained in the Washington Declaration, GEOSS will be based on the exchange of observations recorded from in situ, aircraft, and satellite networks, dedicated to the purposes of this Declaration, in a full and open manner with minimum time delay and minimum cost, recognizing relevant international instruments and national policies and legislation. 11. - Outlook. Not everything is that brilliant or simple. The goals ambitiously established by UNCED in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, are for the most part unfulfilled. With the exception of the elimination of the emissions to the atmosphere of freon and other man-made gases which threaten the ozone layer, most factors and trends responsible for global and climate change remain unaltered or have been even further accentuated. Part of the difficulty lies in the uncertainty of the final outcome of many natural processes that are inadvertently being modified as a result of the ever increasing use the natural-resource base and to detect negative trends in their early stages. On the other hand, the net effects on those natural processes that purposefully are trying to be reversed by the concerted action of many nations of the world are difficult to measure. The changes being promoted, because they involve the whole planet, will have very small effects that will take years or decades to be felt and will be extremely difficult to isolate from natural variability. For example, knowing whether or not the very expensive societal measures, agreed to mitigate the effects of climate change, are having the expected effect, will pose a difficult technological challenge of their own. The science and the technology to diminish these uncertainties are available. For example, in 1999 and 2000 the IOC was engaged in the development of the first blueprint for a global ocean carbon observing system. We see this development as an integral part of GOOS as expressed in its original definition. The Global Terrestrial Observing System,  HYPERLINK "http://www.fao.org/gtos/" GTOS, lead by FAO, is actively improving the measurement of terrestrial carbon fluxes and the IGOS partnership has developed the  HYPERLINK "http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y3929E/y3929e08.htm" Carbon Theme, containing a common set of requirements to build the integrated carbon observing system for the planet. In a short note prepared for the First Earth Observation Summit in Washington I wrote: At least twice during the second half of the XX century, there were initiatives to turn the best technologies of the time to look at our own planet: to discover and conquer the inner space. It is an interesting paradox that in both occasions the political commitment went towards the exploration of outer space. There is no question of the huge benefits that space exploration has provided to humanity, however the reluctance to undertake a major effort to explore and monitor all the planetary systems affecting our environment, stands as a testimony of the limits of our collective foresight. We urgently need to turn our science and technology inward to look at our own planet. Despite our late reaction, by so doing we shall acquire a wealth of knowledge that can make our interaction with nature more knowledgeable, friendly and beneficial to humankind. I do believe what I said then. Although today GOOS is restricted mostly to the Physical aspects of Ocean dynamics, and in that sense is closely linked to the forecast of weather and climate, oceanography is evolving and will enlarge its current scope to incorporate the continuous monitoring of the chemical and biological environments of the Ocean. This development, driven by the growing use of the oceans and the ever-increasing impact of land activities on the Ocean will come to maturity in coming years and will be based on the most challenging and exciting pieces of ocean scientific research. IOC has adventured to work directly with a variety of private users that are interested in trying the new information in their own management. Companies and agencies involved in Energy, Power, Tourism, Building Regulation, Insurance and Financial sector have all expressed interest in cooperating with IOC to better specify their needs of information. It is not that we are asking them to finance directly the investment, but we want them to help us to demonstrate the utility of this information to their activities and in that way put in evidence some of the potential economic benefits that are involved in private-users applications from Earth Observations. Quoting the last paragraph of the Outlook section of the Biennial Report of the IOC to the 31st General Conference of UNESCO: 52. The long-term challenge for IOC is to define a global framework in which the development of GOOS as a single, permanent, global, public-oriented service, can be achieved, with the active contribution of different segments of the society, including the private sector. This requires demonstration of the economic benefits of a common shared strategy between the public and private sector, the identification of the public and private services that can be derived and/or shared through a common observing platform and the appropriate segmentation of public and private products and users. Achieving this new vision will require the development, negotiation and adoption of international norms and agreements, especially in the area of data and information exchange and sharing. Shimane, August 2004 10.- References Field, J.G., G.Hempel & C.P. Summerhayes (2002 ) The Vision to 2020. In: Field, J.G., G.Hempel & C.P. Summerhayes [Eds.] Oceans 2020; Science, Trends and the Challenge of Sustainability. Island Press, Washington, Covelo, London, pp 309-319. Halpern, D. (2000) [Ed.] Satellites, Oceanography and Society. Elsevier Oceanography Series, 63. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 367 pp. IOC (1991a). Resolution XVI-8, Sixteen Session of the Assembly, Paris, 7-21 March 1991; UNESCO, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, Reports of Governing and major Subsidiary Bodies. SC/MD/97 Annex II pp 10-12. IOC (1991b). Resolution XVI-16, Sixteen Session of the Assembly, Paris, 7-21 March 1991; UNESCO, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, Reports of Governing and major Subsidiary Bodies. SC/MD/97 Annex II pp 18-21. Munk, W. (2000) Oceanography before, and after, the advent of satellites. In: Halpern, D. [Ed.] Satellites, Oceanography and Society. Elsevier Oceanography Series, 63. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 1-4. Rees, W.G. (2000) Physical Principles of Remote sensing (2nd Ed.).Cambridge University Press, Cambridge; 343 pp. Second World Climate Conference (1991) Jager, Jill and H.L. Ferguson. 1991. Climate Change: Science, Impacts and Policy: Proceedings of the Second World Climate Conference. Cambridge University Press, New York. Weinberg, S. (2001a) Newtonianism, Reductionism and the Art of Congressional Testimony. In: Facing Up: Science and its Cultural Adversaries. Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachussetts; London, England, pp 7-25. Weinberg, S. (2001b) Newtons Dream. In: Facing Up: Science and its Cultural Adversaries. Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachussetts, London, England; pp 26-41. Weinberg, S. (2001c) Nature itself. In: Facing Up: Science and its Cultural Adversaries. Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachussetts, London, England; pp 57-69. NOTES     UN University Global Seminar Oceans: Interaction between Man and Maritime Environments 5th Shimane Session PAGE  PAGE 24 Observing the ocean / P.A. Bernal July 2004  Economists try to use the market price of each alternative to measure opportunity cost. This method, however, presents a considerable difficulty, since many alternatives do not have a market price. It is very difficult to agree on a way to place a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar" \o "Dollar" dollar value on a wide variety of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intangible_assets" \o "Intangible assets" intangible assets. How does one calculate the cost in dollars,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pounds" \o "Pounds" pounds,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euros" \o "Euros" euros, or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yen" \o "Yen" yen for the loss of clean air, or the loss of seaside views, or the loss of pedestrian access to a shopping center, or the loss of an untouched virgin forest? Since their costs are difficult to quantify, intangible values associated with opportunity cost are easily overlooked or ignored.  The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, IOC, was established 1960 by resolution 2.31 adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO at its eleventh session, and in conformity with the recommendation of the Intergovernmental Conference on Oceanic Research held in the premises of the Danish Parliament in Copenhagen 11- 16 July 1960. The Commission met for its first session in Paris at UNESCO Headquarters from 19 to 27 October 1961.  The Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere (TOGA) project (1985-1994) successfully linked the interaction of the atmosphere with the circulation of tropical oceans. As a result of TOGA, periodic episodes such as El Nino can be predicted up to a year or more in advance. Major economic benefits are being gained from the use of these predictions in regions where they can be applied.  The term ocean weather is mostly applied to the mesoscale variability associated with scales of 100 km and 100 days. According to Munk (loc.cit.) mesoscale currents are responsible for more than 95% of the oceans kinetic energy. Wave forecasting is also an integral part of ocean weather. Local ocean weather is often fully decoupled from local atmospheric weather, i.e. winds direction and intensity can be in opposite direction and of completely different intensity than surface ocean currents. This is a critical piece of knowledge for ship routing, as some of the competitive yatch mariners have recently found out [Pierre Bahurel, pers.comm.]. As the location of industrial operations on the continental shelf increases, Ocean weather forecast is becoming more important and is supporting an expanding market of private ocean services.  All Acronyms or expressions in the text printed in blue and underlined, are linked to a valid website.  The 16th Session of the IOC Assembly (March 1991) adopted IOC Resolution XVI-8: Considering that a Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) should ultimately be able to supply enough data to support the evaluation of natural and human-induced climate changes and for the long-range forecasting of weather and climate over the whole planet, as well as regional predictions of ocean conditions for fisheries, coastal-zone management, and pollution studies, for use by Member States, [] Decides to undertake development of a Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS); []  The cost of building and running research vessels is a disproportionate high fraction of Ocean research costs. This factor has severely limited the development of oceanography around the world. Ocean research cannot compete on an equal footing with most types of academic research, and calls for special ways of organizing national research to take care of this particular need. The daily operation cost of many research vessels is comparable to the daily cost of a large research facility like an Observatory.  The title of Carl Wunsch paper was Is the Ocean predictable over decades, and how might one find out?. The quotation is my own recollection of Carls answer to a question on the variability of El Nio type of phenomena and should not be taken as a verbatim rendition of his own formulation.  IGOSS was established by IOC and WMO as a joint programme for the collection and exchange of ocean data and the timely preparation and distribution of products and services. It had three components: (i) Observing System: Surface based and space-based, the system includes research vessels, ships of opportunity, buoys and satellites. (ii) Data Processing and Services System: National, specialized and world oceanographic centres process observational data, provide products and manage data exchange activities for various marine user groups. Over 500 products from 50 countries used routinely IGOSS data. (iii) Telecommunications Arrangements: Telecommunications facilities of the World Weather Watch  HYPERLINK "http://www.gsf.de/UNEP/www.html" WWW Global Telecommunications System (GTS) were used distribute data and information. Today IGOSS is part of the J-COMM.  SOLAS is the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea of the IMO (the UN International Maritime Organization), that adopted the 1 November 1974, entered into force the 25 May 1980. The SOLAS Convention in its successive forms is generally regarded as the most important of all international treaties concerning the safety of merchant ships. The first version was adopted in 1914, in response to the Titanic disaster. Current version provides for a tacit acceptance procedure designed to ensure that successive changes are made within a specified and acceptably short period of time. Ref.:  HYPERLINK "http://www.imo.org/home.asp" http://www.imo.org/home.asp  In the planning of WOCE, allowance was made of this computer power growth.  TOGA and its two successor programs WOCE the World Ocean Circulation Experiment and the Climate variability Programme, CLIVAR, are part of the World Climate Research Programme,  HYPERLINK "http://www.wmo.ch/wmo50/e/wmo/today_pages/wild_clim_research_e.html" WCRP, established in 1980, to examine to what extent climate can be predicted, and to what extent man influences climate. WCRP is jointly sponsored by WMO, the International Council for Science (ICSU) and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO.  The flip-flop circuit allows the electronic counting in any digital system, and therefore fast binary operations upon which you can build almost anything: text processors, communications gadgets, surveillance systems or holographic imaging. In the first computers this circuit was built by vaccum valves, individual resistors and condensers. After the discovery of transistors in the early fifties, the circuits were substantively miniaturized. Today, the computer in which I am writing this paper on, has millions of flip-flop circuits in the CPU and memory chips, and you can buy them for 100 Euros. It would be wrong to assign all the impact of digital computing just to the vacuum valves, the transistors or, as a matter of fact, the basic machine languages that articulate all this. Computers are a second order operating engineering at work (or third, if you include software development).  The USA part of the TAO array was pledged in 1999 by the USA delegation as a contribution to the Initial GOOS system.  Moorings along and to the west of 156E were deployed and are maintained by the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), now part of MEXT, the new Ministry of Education, Science , Technology and Sports of Japan.  I cannot refrain to give you my hypothetical vision on how EuroGOOS was started. During the development of the offshore oil and gas exploitation in the North Sea, I imagine one day the rendez-vous of two vessels from two different R/D private companies, deploying instruments in an area of the North Sea to provide services to oil companies operating, lets say off the British Isles and off the coast of Norway. After avoiding interference with each other out at sea, back in port, senior officers of both companies got together and ask themselves what it would take to have an agreement to share the data from a single instrument array, saving the cost of the extra array (half a million USD for a moored array), or perhaps jointly deploy the extra array in an area in which neither of the two had the resources to invest if working alone. They sat down, wrote the specifications, precision, accuracy, dynamic range of the linear response of the transducers, frequency of sampling, etc.; exactly what we have done in IOC to build GOOS, and they then agreed to share the data in a given format. The knowledge that allows them to be specialists and provide good advise to their clients it is not in the data, it is in the knowledge to use that data. However they cannot use that knowledge without the data.   HYPERLINK "http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=328000" Nazli Choucri electronic publications page  2.5.1 Agree on interoperability objective As a system of systems for Earth observations, GEOSS will need to encompass many existing and future individual observing systems that are separately managed by management domains at any level of government, as well as possibly by commercial, academic, and other non-government organizations. This objective demands high interoperabilitythat is, differences among systems must not be a barrier to tasks that span those systems. Because interoperability agreements must be broad and sustainable, fewer agreements accommodating many systems are preferred over many agreements accommodating few each. From: Architecture Subgroup Report GEO4 DOC 4.1(2) - REV 2.0; Updated - Post EO Summit II; 13 May 2004  The World Meteorological Organization,  HYPERLINK "http://www.wmo.ch/index-en.html" WMO, The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,  HYPERLINK "http://www.unesco.org/" UNESCO, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission,  HYPERLINK "http://ioc.unesco.org/" IOC of UNESCO, The Food and Agriculture Organization,  HYPERLINK "http://www.fao.org/" FAO, and the United Nations Environment Programme,  HYPERLINK "http://www.unep.org/" UNEP.  IGOS involves the major space-based and in situ systems for global observations of the Earth, including, in particular, the climate and atmosphere, oceans, land surface and Earth interior. IGOS has contributed to improve Governments understanding of global observing plans; provide a framework for decisions on the continuity of observation of key variables; reduce duplication; help to improve resource allocation; and assist in the transition from an exclusive research focus to the development of applications in the form of a wide variety of information-services with important socio-economic benefits to humankind.  Paragraphs 132 and 133 of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation say: 132. Promote the development and wider use of earth observation technologies, including satellite remote sensing, global mapping and geographic information systems, to collect quality data on environmental impacts, land use and land-use changes, including through urgent actions at all levels to: Strengthen cooperation and coordination among global observing systems and research programmes for integrated global observations, taking into account the need for building capacity and sharing of data from ground-based observations, satellite remote sensing and other sources among all countries; Develop information systems that make the sharing of valuable data possible, including the active exchange of Earth observation data; Encourage initiatives and partnerships for global mapping. 133. Support countries, particularly developing countries, in their national efforts to: Collect data that are accurate, long-term, consistent and reliable; Use satellite and remote-sensing technologies for data collection and further improvement of ground-based observations; Access, explore and use geographic information by utilizing the technologies of satellite remote sensing, satellite global positioning, mapping and geographic information systems. Figure 1  Red dots in the Equator are the moored buoys that belong to the TAO array. Light blue lines are the routes of merchant vessels equipped with data collecting gear. Yellow dots are tide-gauges participating in GLOSS. All these systems belong to the Initial Global Ocean Observing System, in operation since 1997. Figure 2  Metareas in which the global ocean is divided to provide safety warnings through GDMSS. 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