ࡱ> DFC9 ~#bjbj 9@X%l|||||||8<R,"Y [ [ [ [ [ [ $  |  || &   ||Y  Y    ||= ~ 0xB|N - =  H5 h vh=  ||||HAE-DAT IOC joint ICES/PICES database Description of HAB Problems in Japan Yasunori Watanabe1, Ichiro Imai2, Shigeru Itakura1, Akira Ishikawa3 and Yasuwo Fukuyo4 1National Research Institute of Fisheries and Environment of Inland Sea, Fisheries Research Agency, Ohno, Saeki, Hiroshima 739-0452, Japan E-mail:  HYPERLINK "mailto:ywat@affrc.go.jp" ywat@affrc.go.jp 2 Division of Applied Biosciences, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan 3 Faculty of Bioresources, Mie University, Kamihama, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan 4 Asian Natural Environmental Science Center, University of Tokyo, Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan Two types of harmful algal blooms (HABs) are known in Japan. The first one is a noxious algal bloom associated with the mass mortality of marine organisms, especially fish in aquaculture cages and shellfish hanging from rafts. Most of the noxious blooms cause water discoloration, and are therefore called red tides, but less than 2010% of the red tides cause harmful effects. Most management and scientific research efforts have been devoted to the harmful ones, but successive occurrences of different harmful species such as Chattonella, Gymnodinium Karenia and Heterocapsa that appear to be increasing with changing environmental and oceanographic conditions, have caused great public concern, with their feeling that the fight against red tides is endless. The second type of HAB is a toxic algal bloom causing contamination of shellfish, either PSP (paralytic shellfish poisoning) or DSP (diarrhetic shellfish poisoning). The amount of toxin in shellfish and the cell number of toxic dinoflagellates are regularly monitored by local governments. Closure of aquaculture areas for the harvesting and marketing of shellfish depend on the amount of toxin, not on the toxic plankton concentration. Therefore not all blooms of toxic plankton are recorded as HAB occurrences. Toxic plankton blooms with toxin contamination lower than permitted level are not recorded as HAB occurrences. The first confirmed PSP and DSP cases occurred in 1948 and 1976, respectively. In the early 1970s, shellfish aquaculture techniques were more fully developed and the aquaculture industry spread into various areas, mainly along the coast of northern Japan. But at the same time, several cases of human poisoning (PSP and DSP) were also reported. The Fisheries Agency and Food Safety and Consumers Bureau of Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries set guidelines for monitoring and marketing regulation together with the Ministry of Health and Welfare. After implementation of the official monitoring program there was no poisoning case by marine products sold in market. Red tides that harm marine life. (TAMAI, K.) The most hazardous red tide species causing fisheries damage events in Japan are Chattonella marina, C. antiqua and dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium Karenia mikimotoi. These three species mainly kill finfish and have frequently caused very severe fisheries damage of more than 100 million yen (about one million US$). The dinoflagellate Heterocapsa circularisquama, recorded for the first time from a small, semi-enclosed bay connected to Tosa Bay in 1988, was newly added to the list of hazardous species. This species only shows a harmful effect on shellfish, particularly on bivalves such as edible oysters, pearl oysters, short-necked clams and so on. Very severe fisheries damage caused by this species has occurred four times in last decade. In addition, the dinoflagellates Cocholodinium polykrikoides and Gonyaulax polygramma and raphidoflagellate Heterosigma akashiwo are also hazardous species in Japan. Presently, the diatoms Eucampia zodiacus, Coscinodiscus wailesii and Rhizosolenia imbricata have harmful effects on porphyra (nori) culture resulting from nutrient depletion. This causes nori bleaching resulting in a serious reduction in market price. This is a social problem currently causing a huge economic loss of more than 10 billion yen (about one hundred million US$). 3. Plankton blooms toxic to humans (FUKUYO, Y. & M. KODAMA) Almost all microalgae responsible for various types of fish and shellfish poisoning of humans, such as PSP, DSP, ASP (amnesic shellfish poisoning), NSP (neurotoxic shellfish poisoning) and ciguatera (ciguatera fish poisoning), are present in Japanese coastal waters. Among them, PSP and DSP toxin contamination of marine shellfish and filter feeders has been monitored officially since 1995 at 67 sea areas and 173 sampling stations. The official monitoring program started in 1978 in northern Japan and some other areas where shellfish aquaculture operated. PSP causative plankton Dinoflagellates responsible for PSP contamination in Japanese waters are Alexandrium tamarense, A. catenella, A. tamiyavanichii and Gymnodinium catenatum. These species usually bloom in different areas in different seasons, rarely blooming simultaneously. Among them, A. tamarense and A. catenella appear over wider areas and often cause toxin contamination of scallops, mussels, clams and tunicates. In the first decade after the the monitoring program began, the area affected was mainly in northern Japan, but it has gradually expanded to western Japan. Closures of affected areas are decided by toxin quantification using the mouse bioassay, using a modified AOAC method. Four MU (Mouse Units) of toxin in 1 gram of edible part of sample (equivalent to 80 micrograms per 100 g) is the highest tolerable quarantine level. If the toxicity exceeds this quarantine level, closure of the area for harvesting the species is declared and three consecutive weeks of toxicity below the quarantine level is necessary to lift the closure. This means that it takes a minimum of 21 days to re-open the market. The economic damage due to PSP toxin contamination is measured by the duration of closure. This monitoring and management system has been working successfully, and no PSP cases have occurred so far from eating shellfish sold in market, although some accidental cases have been reported from the consumption of shellfish collected in the wild. DSP causative plankton Dinoflagellates responsible for DSP contamination in Japanese waters are Dinophysis fortii and D. acuminata. Some other dinoflagellates such as D. mitra and D. tripos are also known to produce DSP toxins, but accumulation of toxins produced by these is less than qthe quarantine level. Closure of the affected area is decided by toxin quantification using mouse bioassay. A level of 0.05 MU in 1 gram of edible part of shellfish toxin (equivalent to 1 microgram per 100 g) is the highest permissive level. The management policy for the closure of aquaculture areas is same as that for PSP. After initiation of the monitoring program, the area affected was mainly in northern Japan. In western Japan, D. fortii have mysteriously never caused DSP toxin contamination in shellfish despite the rather high cell densities observed. After the establishment of the monitoring system, no poisoning case has been reported. Other toxic microalgae The diatom genus Pseudo-nitzschia is one of the commonest phytoplankton in Japanese waters, and about 10 different species bloom successively almost year round. The production of domoic acid, which is responsible for ASP in north America, has been confirmed in isolates of P. multiseries, P. delicatissima and P. pseudodelicatissima. However, domoic acid contamination in wild and aquacultured shellfish has not been detected so far, in spite of very intensive surveys conducted by Japan Fisheries Agency and several universities. Therefore no regular monitoring program is set for ASP toxins. For NSP and ciguatera, there is no monitoring program, although Gymnodinium breve and Gambierdiscus toxicus, causative organisms respectively for those types of poisoning, are sometimes found in western Japan, toxin contamination in shellfish and fish has not been detected.     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